Aristotle's Three Modes of Persuasion: Ethos, Pathos & Logos

 Aristotle described three rhetorical modes of persuasion: Ethos, Pathos & Logos.

Ethos is your character as expressed by your speech. It is the effect you produce by what you say and not who you are. Your Ethos must create confidence, give you credibility.

Pathos are the emotions you create in your audience (anger, pity, fear, sympathy, etc.). 

Logos are the reasons you give for your cause, its argument. It includes both the substance of your argument and the manner of its delivery. 

The Role of Ethos in Ancient Greek Drama

Ancient Greek drama provides numerous examples of ethos, demonstrating how characters' moral and ethical frameworks drive the plot and deliver powerful messages. Here are some notable examples:

Sophocles' Antigone

In this tragedy, ethos plays a central role in the conflict between the protagonist Antigone and King Creon. Antigone's strong sense of familial duty compels her to bury her brother, defying Creon's decree. This clash between individual ethos (Antigone's loyalty to family) and state ethos (Creon's adherence to law) creates a compelling narrative that explores themes of justice, duty, and morality.

Oedipus Rex

Sophocles' Oedipus Rex demonstrates how a character's ethos can be both a strength and a weakness. Oedipus' determination to uncover the truth about his identity and save Thebes from plague showcases his strong moral character. However, his steadfastness ultimately leads to his downfall as he discovers his true identity.

The Role of the Chorus

Greek tragedies often employed the Chorus as a representation of communal ethos. The chorus served not only as narrators or commentators but also as a moral compass, reflecting societal values and norms. This collective voice provided context and commentary on the characters' actions, helping the audience understand the ethical implications of the unfolding events.

Character Construction in Greek Tragedy

The construction of characters in Greek tragedy was influenced by several factors that shaped their ethos:

1. Mythical characters: Most tragic characters were drawn from well-known myths, which limited their characterisation to established narratives.
2. Short play length: The brevity of Greek plays often resulted in characters defined by a single overriding motivation.
3. Theatrical constraints: The use of masks, large outdoor theatres, and a small number of actors influenced characters to be more formal and simple in their presentation.

Despite these constraints, Greek tragedies still managed to create complex characters with nuanced ethos. For example, Antigone, while initially defiant, begins to doubt her cause and plead for mercy as she faces execution, demonstrating a depth of character beyond a single-minded motivation.

By exploring these examples of ethos in ancient Greek drama, we can better understand how playwrights used characters' ethical frameworks to create compelling narratives and explore profound moral questions that continue to resonate with audiences today.
The Role of Pathos in Ancient Greek Drama

Ancient Greek drama frequently employed pathos to evoke strong emotions in the audience. Here are some notable examples of pathos in Greek tragedies:

Euripides' Medea

In this powerful tragedy, Euripides masterfully uses pathos to portray the emotional turmoil of the protagonist, Medea. The audience is drawn into Medea's intense suffering, evoking deep empathy and sorrow. Her anguish over her husband's betrayal and her subsequent actions create a gripping narrative that resonates with the viewers on an emotional level.

Sophocles' Oedipus Rex

Sophocles' "Oedipus Rex" is another prime example of pathos in Greek tragedy. The play's emotional core revolves around Oedipus' tragic discovery of his true identity and fate. As the truth unfolds, the audience experiences a mix of pity and fear, demonstrating how pathos can drive the narrative and create a lasting impact.

Euripides' Andromache

This play demonstrates pathos through the heart-wrenching interaction between Andromache and her son. They sing alternate strophes in anticipation of the son's imminent execution, creating a deeply moving scene that elicits strong emotions from the audience.

Euripides' Alcestis

In "Alcestis," Euripides uses pathos to portray the grief of a child. The son sings two strophes of lament, presenting a poignant picture of a child's sorrow in the face of loss. This use of pathos helps to humanise the characters and make their suffering more relatable to the audience.

Homer's Iliad

Although not a drama in the strictest sense, Homer's epic poem "The Iliad" contains elements of pathos that influenced later dramatic works. A notable example is Achilles' profound sorrow and rage following the death of his friend Patroclus. This emotional portrayal adds depth to the character and evokes strong responses from the audience.

These examples demonstrate how Greek playwrights skilfully used pathos to create emotionally charged narratives, developing characters and engaging audiences on a deeper level. By focusing on the sorrow, joy, and fear experienced by their characters, these writers brought emotional intensity to their stories, making them more relatable and full of impact. The Role of Logos in Ancient Greek Drama Logos in Ancient Greek drama refers to the use of reason, logic, and argumentation, often to persuade others, justify actions, or explore ethical and philosophical dilemmas. It is a central rhetorical and dramatic tool in Greek tragedies and comedies. Here are some notable examples of logos as used in Ancient Greek drama: 1. Antigone by Sophocles Character’s Logos: Creon uses logos to justify his decree that Polyneices should not be buried, arguing that loyalty to the state must come before familial ties. Key Moment: Creon defends his decision, stating, "The city is the king’s—it belongs to no one else." His reasoning emphasises the importance of political order and authority. Antigone’s Response: Antigone counters Creon’s argument with divine law, which she believes holds greater logical authority than human law. This clash demonstrates a conflict between competing systems of logos. 2. Oedipus Rex by Sophocles Character’s Logos: Oedipus employs logos throughout the play as he seeks to uncover the truth behind King Laius’s murder and the cause of Thebes' plague. Key Moment: Oedipus interrogates witnesses, cross-examines Tiresias, and connects the evidence systematically. His logical reasoning drives the plot, even though it leads to his tragic realisation. Tiresias’ Response: In contrast to Oedipus’ reliance on logos, Tiresias appeals to divine insight, creating a tension between human reasoning and prophetic knowledge. 3. The Oresteia by Aeschylus Character’s Logos: The trilogy culminates in a logos-driven debate in The Eumenides during the trial of Orestes. Key Moment: Athena establishes a jury to adjudicate Orestes’ case, introducing logos as the foundation for justice. Arguments are presented by both Apollo (defending Orestes) and the Furies (prosecuting him), marking the transition from personal vengeance to a rational legal system. 4. Medea by Euripides Character’s Logos: Medea uses logos to craft rational arguments that mask her emotional turmoil and manipulate others. Key Moment: Medea persuades King Creon to grant her one more day before her exile, arguing that it is a reasonable request for her to make final arrangements for her children. This logical appeal hides her true intent to exact revenge. Jason’s Logos: Jason defends his betrayal by arguing that his marriage to the Corinthian princess was a logical decision to secure a better future for his family. Medea’s counterarguments expose the flaws in his reasoning. 5. The Trojan Women by Euripides Character’s Logos: The women, particularly Hecuba, use logos to critique the logic of war and its consequences. Key Moment: Hecuba questions the rationale behind the Greeks' destruction of Troy and the enslavement of its women, presenting a reasoned condemnation of the victors’ inhumanity and hubris. 6. Lysistrata by Aristophanes Character’s Logos: Lysistrata employs logos to persuade the women and the men of Greece to adopt her peace plan. Key Moment: She uses logical reasoning to argue that prolonged war is detrimental to both sides and that a unified Greece would be more prosperous. Her appeal to shared interests helps her overcome resistance. 7. Prometheus Bound by Aeschylus Character’s Logos: Prometheus articulates a rational defense of his actions, explaining the reasoning behind his decision to give fire and knowledge to humanity. Key Moment: Prometheus argues that his foresight and logic led him to act in the interest of humanity, even though he knew it would bring Zeus’ wrath. His speeches reflect a deep engagement with logos as a justification for rebellion. 8. The Bacchae by Euripides Character’s Logos: Pentheus uses logos to dismiss Dionysus and the Bacchic cult as irrational and dangerous, attempting to rationalize his authoritarian stance. Key Moment: Pentheus argues against Dionysus’ divinity and the excesses of the Bacchic rituals, employing logic to justify his opposition. However, his rigid reliance on reason blinds him to the spiritual and emotional dimensions of the conflict. In Greek drama, logos is often presented in tension with pathos (emotional appeal) and ethos (character credibility). Playwrights use logos not just to develop characters but also to engage the audience in philosophical debates, showcasing the power and limitations of human reasoning.
References

Logos - Wikipedia
Ethos - Wikipedia
Pathos - Wikipedia

Greek Ethos as Tragic Heroes - The Ancient Greeks: Tragedy, Philosophy, and Politics

What are Ethos, Pathos & Logos? - Boords

Greek Ethos: Concept & Importance - Vaia

Tragic pathos pity and fear greek philosophy and tragedy - Cambridge University Press

usu.edu/markdamen/1320anclit/chapters/06gktrag.htm

Rees, B. R. (1972). “Pathos” in the “Poetics” of Aristotle. Greece 

& Rome, http://www.jstor.org/stable/642517

Tragic Pathos: Pity and Fear in Greek Philosophy and Tragedy - Dana LaCourse Munteanu - Google Books

Ancient Greek Drama and the Evolution of Rhetoric

Origins of Rhetoric Homer

Homer's works, especially the Iliad and the Odyssey, hold an essential place in the study of rhetoric, even though they predate the formalisation of rhetorical theory by the ancient Greeks. The narratives and speeches within these epics demonstrate early examples of persuasive language, character-driven dialogue, and the power of storytelling—all of which became central concerns of rhetorical study.

Key Aspects of Rhetoric in Homer's Works:

1. Speeches as Persuasive Tools:

   • Homer's characters frequently use speeches to persuade, motivate, or confront others. For example, in the Iliad, Achilles, Agamemnon, and Odysseus deliver emotionally charged and logically structured speeches, reflecting the use of ethos (credibility), pathos (emotion), and logos (reason), concepts later formalised by Aristotle.

2. Ethos and Leadership:

   • Homer's heroes often establish their ethos through their words and deeds. Odysseus, in particular, is known for his cunning and rhetorical skill, demonstrating how eloquence can influence others and shape outcomes.

3. Pathos in Emotional Appeals:

   • Many of Homer's characters appeal to emotions, such as grief, anger, or loyalty. For example, Priam’s plea to Achilles for Hector’s body in the Iliad is deeply emotional, illustrating the rhetorical power of pathos in achieving an outcome.

4. Storytelling as a Rhetorical Act:

   • The Odyssey is rich in examples of storytelling used as persuasion. Odysseus narrates his adventures not only to entertain but also to build trust, evoke sympathy, and persuade others to assist him.

5. Audience Awareness:

   • The epics showcase keen awareness of audience dynamics. Characters tailor their arguments depending on whether they address a king, a crowd, or an individual, reflecting early rhetorical principles of adapting to the audience.

6. Memory and Oral Tradition:

   • Homer’s epics, rooted in oral tradition, emphasize memory and repetition—skills that are vital to classical rhetoric. The use of epithets, recurring phrases, and formulaic expressions aids the speaker in delivering and the audience in retaining the message.

Influence on Later Rhetoric:

Homer’s texts were foundational for later Greek education and rhetorical training. They were studied not only for their literary merit but also for their exemplification of effective communication and argumentation. Figures like Plato, Aristotle, and the sophists frequently referenced Homer to discuss rhetorical techniques and moral dilemmas.

In sum, while Homer himself was not a rhetorician in the formal sense, his works are imbued with rhetorical principles that have profoundly influenced the development of persuasive discourse in Western thought.

Hesiod Extract from Hesiod's Rhetorical Art by Jenny Strauss Clay in Chapter 29 of A Companion to Greek Rhetoric edited by Ian Worthington (pp.447-457) - Wiley Online Library "The handbooks tell us that rhetoric was discovered in Greece during the fifth or even fourth century and required both developed democratic and legal institutions and a literate culture to flourish, social conditions Hesiod, a near contemporary of Homer, from a small village in Boeotia could not have known. Moreover, we usually consider rhetoric to refer to speech making in prose, not Hesiod's traditional hexameter verse. Nevertheless, the Hesiodic poems share an important characteristic of oratory in its usual meaning: both are conceived as spoken performances in front of an audience. All early Greek poetry was performed orally before an audience rather than read, and the occasion of performance determined its character and genre. If we define rhetoric generally as the 'means by which a writer makes known his vision to the reader and persuades him of its validity', then the term would indeed apply to the Hesiodic poems, but it would also promiscuously embrace just about any form of literary expression. If, on the other hand, we define rhetoric as the formal study or codification of the means and rules of persuasive speech, then to speak of Hesiod's rhetoric might leave us open to the charge of gross anachronism. Yet if rhetoric means reflecting self-consciously and systematically about the power and efficacy of speech, then to speak of Hesiod's rhetoric might leave us open to the charge of gross anachronism. Yet if rhetoric means reflecting self-consciously and systematically about the power and efficacy of speech, Hesiod, I will argue, not only practised that art, but also thought about and formulated his views, not, to be sure, in a treatise, but nevertheless in a coherent manner. In fact, I would maintain ─with only a little tongue in cheek─ that Hesiod might well be considered the father of rhetoric." Ancient Greek Drama and Rhetoric The relationship between Ancient Greek Drama and Rhetoric is a complex one, with scholars offering various perspectives. Some argue that they were intertwined from the beginning, whilst others argue that they evolved independently but influenced each other over time. Although Greek Drama may not have originated from Rhetoric there was a concurrence in their joint timing in history.

One viewpoint suggests that early Greek drama, particularly tragedy, emerged from ritualistic performances and religious ceremonies, which often involved elements of persuasion and oratory. As these performances evolved, they incorporated more elaborate speeches and dialogues, potentially influenced by the emerging art of rhetoric. Conversely, some scholars argue that Rhetoric, as a formal discipline, developed independently in the context of the law courts and political assemblies, especially in Athens. They suggest that the use of persuasive techniques in drama came later, influenced by a growing sophistication in rhetorical practices.

The evolution of Rhetoric in the late 6th century BC may have significantly influenced the development of Greek tragic drama, intertwining philosophical, political, and artistic elements to shape its structure and themes. This period, particularly in Athens, saw the rise of democratic institutions, which fostered a culture of public debate and the need to persuade people in collective situations, and the exploration of human thought and emotion.

Regardless of their origins, both Greek Drama and Rhetoric clearly coexisted and clearly influenced each other during the Classical period. The dramatic works of playwrights like Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides show a masterful use of rhetorical devices, such as powerful speeches, emotional appeals, and logical arguments. These dramatic techniques, in turn, may have further popularised and a refinement in the art of Rhetoric.

The exact nature and extent of the relationship between Greek Drama and Rhetoric remain subjects of an ongoing debate between scholars. However, it is undeniable that they were both significant cultural forces in Ancient Greece, contributing to the development of literature, philosophy, and political thought.
The evolution of rhetoric in the late 6th century BC significantly influenced the development of Greek tragic drama, intertwining philosophical, political, and artistic elements to shape its structure and themes. This period, particularly in Athens, saw the rise of democratic institutions, which fostered a culture of public debate, persuasion, and the exploration of human thought and emotion.

Choral Commentary and Public Discourse

The Chorus in Greek tragedy served a rhetorical function, often mediating the action with reflective commentary that mirrored the collective voice of the community. This role was akin to the deliberative aspect of rhetoric, providing insights and judgements on the unfolding drama.

Impact of Sophists and Early Rhetoricians
The Sophists, who emerged in this period, were instrumental in formalising Rhetoric as an art of persuasion. Their emphasis on the relativity of truth and the power of language influenced tragedians to explore themes of ambiguity and conflicting perspectives. In Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex, for instance, the protagonist’s search for truth is complicated by the multiplicity of interpretations and the limits of human understanding.

The evolution of rhetoric enriched Greek tragic drama by introducing sophisticated techniques of argumentation, deepening character development, and embedding ethical and political inquiry within the narrative. Tragedy became a forum for public reflection, mirroring the intellectual and civic dynamics of its time and offering audiences a profound engagement with the complexities of human existence.

Key aspects of the influence of Rhetoric on Drama include:

Focus on Persuasion and Dialogue

Emergence of Logos (Reasoning):
The rise of rhetoric emphasised the power of logos, or reasoned speech, as a means of persuasion. This is reflected in Greek tragedies, where characters often engage in intense verbal debates, attempting to sway others or justify their actions. For example, in 'Sophocles’ Antigone, the conflicting arguments between Antigone and Creon highlight themes of individual morality versus state law.

Structure of Agon:
The rhetorical device of the agon, a structured debate between characters, became a hallmark of tragic drama. These debates demonstrated conflicting worldviews and ethical dilemmas, mirroring the intellectual rigour that was prized in Athenian democracy.

Exploration of Human Nature and Ethical Questions

Rhetoric encouraged the exploration of complex human motivations and the nature of moral choices. Tragic playwrights, influenced by rhetorical techniques, dramatised these complexities through characters torn between competing duties, desires, and social pressures. Euripides, in particular, delved deeply into the psychological dimensions of his characters, as seen in Medea and The Bacchae.

Integration of Civic and Political Themes

The rhetorical tradition was closely tied to the democratic processes of Athens, where citizens were expected to articulate their views in public assemblies and courts. Tragedies often reflected this civic engagement, using mythological narratives to comment on contemporary political and social issues. Aeschylus’ The Oresteia, for example, examines themes of justice and governance, culminating in the establishment of the court of the Areopagus.

References

A Companion to Greek Rhetoric edited by Ian Worthington - Google Books A Companion to Greek Literature - Google Books A Companion to Greek Tragedy: Ferguson, John - Internet Archive

A Companion to Greek Tragedy - Justina Gregory - Google Books

Hesiod - Wikipedia Greek Rhetoric before Aristotle : Enos, Richard Leo - Internet Archive The SAGE Handbook of Rhetorical Studies - Google Books
Tragic Rhetoric: The Rhetorical Dimensions of Greek Tragedy - Google Books
Tragic rhetoric: the rhetorical dimensions of Greek tragedy – Bryn Mawr Classical Review
Vista de Reseñas de libros Drama as Rhetoric/Rhetoric as Drama - Google Books - Theatre Symposium Volume V

Drama and Rhetoric - Ruth Scodel Tragic Rhetoric: The Rhetorical Dimensions of Greek Tragedy - Google Books Ancient Greek Theatre: Ancient Greek Drama and the Evolution of Rhetoric

A Companion to Greek Tragedy - Justina Gregory - Google Books

(Chapter 6 Tragedy, Rhetoric, and Performance Culture by Christopher Pelling)

Core Mythemes in Classical Drama - Structuralism

Mythemes, as fundamental narrative units, are deeply embedded in the fabric of Classical drama. These archetypal patterns, often rooted in myth and folklore, provide the underlying structures for the complex plots and character arcs we encounter in the works of playwrights like Sophocles, Euripides, and Aeschylus.

Core Mythemes in Classical Drama

While the specific manifestations vary widely, certain mythemes recur with notable frequency:

The Hero's Journey or Epic: This is perhaps the most recognisable mytheme, present in countless stories across cultures. In Classical drama, it often involves a protagonist who undergoes a series of trials and adventures, facing both internal and external challenges. Oedipus Rex, for example, is a quintessential example of this mytheme.

Hubris and Nemesis: This mytheme explores the downfall of a character due to excessive pride. Figures like Creon in Antigone and Agamemnon in Agamemnon exemplify this tragic flaw leading to their ultimate destruction.

The Oracle and Fate: The concept of destiny, often revealed through prophecies or oracles, is a central element in many Classical dramas. Characters grapple with the inevitability of their fate, leading to complex moral and ethical dilemmas.

The Family Curse: This mytheme often involves a dynasty or family lineage plagued by misfortune or tragedy. The House of Atreus, as depicted in the Oresteia trilogy, is a prime example of a family cursed by violence and retribution.

The Outsider: Characters who are marginalised or excluded from society often play significant roles in Classical drama. Their perspectives challenge the status quo and expose societal flaws. Medea, for example, is an outsider who seeks revenge against a patriarchal society.
Mythemes and Dramatic Structure

Mythemes not only shape the plot but also contribute to the dramatic structure. They can create suspense, tension, and catharsis. The interplay between characters and their roles within the mythemes drives the action and emotional impact of the play.
The Evolution of Mythemes

It's important to note that mythemes are not static entities. They evolve and adapt over time, reflecting the changing values and concerns of different cultures and periods. In Classical drama, these mythemes were often intertwined with religious and philosophical beliefs, creating a rich and complex tapestry of meaning.

Mytheme Analysis of Some Plays 

Mythemes in Euripides' The Bacchae

Euripides' The Bacchae is a rich tapestry of mythological themes and archetypes. These themes, or "mythemes," provide a deeper understanding of the play's central conflicts and explore universal human experiences.

Here are some of the prominent mythemes found in The Bacchae:

1. The Power of the Divine

Dionysos as a Force of Nature: The god Dionysos is depicted as a powerful, uncontrollable force of nature. His ability to inspire madness, ecstasy, and violence highlights the overwhelming power of the divine and its potential to disrupt human order.

Human Hubris: The play explores the theme of human hubris, as King Pentheus defies the power of Dionysos and ultimately faces tragic consequences.

2. The Inevitability of Fate

The Oracle's Prophecy: The oracle's prophecy foreshadows the tragic events that will unfold, emphasizing the inevitability of fate and the limits of human agency.

The Cycle of Violence: The Bacchae suggests that violence and suffering are cyclical, repeating themselves throughout history.

3. The Conflict Between Civilisation and Nature

The City vs. the Wilderness: The play contrasts the ordered, civilised world of Thebes with the wild, untamed nature associated with Dionysos. This conflict reflects the tension between human control and the forces of nature.

The Loss of Control: Pentheus' attempt to control the Bacchic revelry ultimately leads to his downfall, suggesting that humans cannot fully control the natural world or their own passions.

4. The Power of Female Sexuality and Madness

The Maenads: The female followers of Dionysos, the Maenads, are depicted as frenzied, ecstatic figures who embody the power of female sexuality and madness. Their behaviour challenges traditional notions of femininity and social order.

The Threat to Patriarchy: The Maenads' power and their ability to inspire violence pose a threat to the patriarchal order established by Pentheus.

5. The Role of the Outsider

Dionysos as a Stranger: Dionysos is initially seen as an outsider to Theban society, a foreigner who brings with him a different way of life. His presence challenges the established social norms and values.

The Outsider's Perspective: The play offers a perspective on Theban society from the outside, allowing the audience to critically examine its values and assumptions.

Mythemes in Aeschylus' Seven Against Thebes

Aeschylus' "Seven Against Thebes" is a tragedy that explores several key themes:

1. Fate and Free Will: The play delves into the conflict between fate and individual choices. The characters are driven by their destinies, often leading to tragic outcomes. However, their actions and decisions also play a role in shaping their fates.

2. The Curse of Oedipus: The play is deeply rooted in the curse of Oedipus, which continues to plague his family and Thebes. This curse highlights the destructive power of family feuds and the consequences of past actions.

3. Civil War and Fratricide: The central conflict of the play is the civil war between the two brothers, Eteocles and Polyneices, who are fighting for control of Thebes. This theme explores the destructive nature of internal conflict and the tragic consequences of family disputes.

4. The Role of the Gods: The gods play a significant role in the play, both influencing the events and commenting on human actions. This theme raises questions about the nature of divine power and the relationship between gods and mortals.

5. The Nature of Leadership: The play examines the qualities of effective leadership and the dangers of hubris. The characters' actions and decisions reveal the complexities of leadership and the potential consequences of misguided ambition

References

Barthes, R., & Duisit, L. (1975). An Introduction to the Structural Analysis of Narrative. New Literary History, 6(2), 237–272. https://doi.org/10.2307/468419 https://www.jstor.org/stable/468419

Prince, G. (1982). Narrative Analysis and Narratology. New Literary History, 13(2), 179–188. https://doi.org/10.2307/468908 https://www.jstor.org/stable/468908

Todorov, T., & Weinstein, A. (1969). Structural Analysis of Narrative. NOVEL: A Forum on Fiction, 3(1), 70–76. https://doi.org/10.2307/1345003 https://www.jstor.org/stable/1345003

Dundes, A. (1997). Binary Opposition in Myth: The Propp/Lévi-Strauss Debate in Retrospect. Western Folklore, 56(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.2307/1500385  https://www.jstor.org/stable/1500385

THE EVOLUTION OF MYTHS on JSTOR

The Raw and the Cooked : Claude Levi-Strauss - Internet Archive

Structuralism | Definition, Characteristics, & Facts | Britannica

Structuralism and Ancient Greek Drama

Structuralism is a theoretical approach that analyses cultural phenomena in terms of their relationship to a larger system. It offers a lens through which to examine the intricate web of meaning in Ancient Greek drama.  By focusing on the underlying structures and patterns rather than individual elements, structuralists can analyse and reveal the deep-seated cultural and symbolic codes that are embedded within these texts.

The father of Structuralism was Claude Levi-Strauss.  Levi-Strauss took ideas from Linguistics. Linguistics is the study of human language.  Levi-Strauss argued that human culture works like a language: human myths, rituals, and customs form a system of meaning. Thus this method of analysing Ancient Greek Drama is therefore very much related to study of the origin of Greek drama as a ritual [see Cambridge Anthropological School on Ritual Origin of Drama in this Blog].

Key Structuralist Concepts as applied to Ancient Greek Drama

 
Binary Oppositions: Structuralists often highlight the use of contrasting pairs (e.g., good vs. evil, order vs. chaos, male vs. female) as fundamental organising principles. In Greek tragedy, these oppositions are frequently explored through character foils, plot developments, and thematic conflicts.

 
Myth and Ritual: Structuralists argue that myths and rituals are interconnected and serve as foundational structures of a culture.

Ancient Greek Drama is deeply rooted in mythological narratives and often reenacts or explores the underlying patterns and tensions present in these myths.

Narrative Structure: By analysing the sequence of events, characters, and conflicts, structuralists can identify recurring patterns and archetypes in Greek Drama. Thus this approach helps to uncover the underlying logic and meaning of the narrative.

 
Language and Symbolism: Structuralists pay close attention to the language used in texts, examining the connotations and symbolic significance of words and images. In Greek drama, the playwrights used language and imagery very carefully and this enabled them to contribute to the overall meaning and power of their plays.

Key Structuralist Concepts As Applied to Greek Drama

Binary Oppositions: Structuralists often focus on the interplay of contrasting elements within a text. In Greek drama, this can be seen in the opposition of:

Order vs. chaos
Human vs. divine
Fate vs. free will
Reason vs. passion

Myth and Ritual: Structuralists argue that myths and rituals are fundamentally linked. Greek drama, deeply rooted in mythological narratives, can be seen as a form of ritualised performance, exploring collective anxieties and desires.

Narrative Structure: By analysing the plot structure of plays, structuralists can identify recurring patterns and archetypal characters. The three unities of time, place, and action, commonly observed in Greek drama, are also subjects of structuralist inquiry.

Language and Symbolism: Structuralists pay close attention to the language and symbolism employed in a text. In Greek drama, the use of metaphors, imagery, and character names can reveal deeper layers of meaning.

Examples of Structuralist Analysis in Greek Drama

 
Oedipus Rex:

This classic tragedy can be analysed through the lens of a system of binary opposites as well as an  exploration of the Oedipus myth and its ritualistic implications

The central opposition is between knowledge and ignorance. Oedipus' pursuit of the knowledge of his origin which ultimately leads to his downfall.

The play's structure is cyclical, mirroring the tragic fate of Oedipus.

Oedipus Rex is often interpreted as having a cyclical structure due to several key elements:Fate and Free Will: 

The play explores the tension between fate and free will, with Oedipus' actions seemingly determined by prophecy yet also driven by his own choices. This creates a sense of a repeating pattern, where actions and consequences intertwine cyclically.

Tragic Hero's Downfall: Oedipus' journey from a revered king to a self-blinded outcast mirrors the cyclical nature of human experience, rising and falling.

Thematic Repetition: The play often repeats motifs and themes, such as sight and blindness, knowledge and ignorance, which contribute to a cyclical sense of the narrative.

Circular Plot Structure: Some critics argue that the play's plot, beginning and ending with Thebes in crisis, creates a circular narrative structure, suggesting a perpetual cycle of suffering and redemption.

The character of Tiresias, the blind prophet, contrasts with Oedipus, the seeing but blind king.

Antigone:

The play explores the conflict between divine law and human law, as represented by Antigone and Creon, respectively.   

The Chorus in Antigone acts as a mediator, representing the voice of reason and the societal norms of Ancient Greece. The play's structure is based on a series of reversals and recognitions all of which lead to the tragic outcome of the play.

Medea:

Medea: Euripides' play can be examined in terms of gender roles, power dynamics, and the clash between human emotions and societal expectations.

The central opposition is between love and hate, passion and reason.

Medea's character can be seen as an archetype of the wronged woman.

The play's structure involves a gradual escalation of violence and revenge.

Mythemes in Classical Drama: A Complex Tapestry

Mythemes, as fundamental narrative units in Myth, are deeply embedded in the fabric of Classical drama. These archetypal patterns, often rooted in myth and folklore, provide the underlying structures for the complex plots and character arcs [the transformation or inner journey of a character over the course of a story/plot] like those which we encounter in the works of playwrights like Sophocles, Euripides, and Aeschylus.

Core Mythemes in Classical Drama

While the specific manifestations vary widely, certain mythemes recur with notable frequency:

The Hero's Journey: This is perhaps the most recognisable mytheme, present in countless stories across cultures. In Classical drama, it often involves a protagonist who undergoes a series of trials, facing both internal and external challenges. Oedipus Rex, for example, is a quintessential example of this mytheme.

Hubris and Nemesis: This mytheme explores the downfall of a character due to excessive pride. Figures like Creon in Antigone and Agamemnon in Agamemnon exemplify this tragic flaw leading to their ultimate destruction.

The Oracle and Fate: The concept of destiny, often revealed through prophecies or oracles, is a central element in many Classical dramas. Characters grapple with the inevitability of their fate, leading to complex moral and ethical dilemmas.

The Family Curse: This mytheme often involves a lineage plagued by misfortune or tragedy. The House of Atreus, as depicted in the Oresteia trilogy, is a prime example of a family cursed by violence and retribution.

The Outsider: Characters who are marginalised or excluded from society often play significant roles in Classical drama. Their perspectives challenge the status quo and expose societal flaws. Medea, for example, is an outsider who seeks revenge against a patriarchal society.
Mythemes and Dramatic Structure

Mythemes not only shape the plot but also contribute to the dramatic structure. They can create suspense, tension, and catharsis. The interplay between characters and their roles within the mythemes drives the action and emotional impact of the play.

The Evolution of Mythemes

It's important to note that mythemes are not static entities. They evolve and adapt over time, reflecting the changing values and concerns of different cultures and periods. In Classical drama, these mythemes were often intertwined with religious and philosophical beliefs, creating a rich and complex tapestry of meaning.

Levi-Strauss and the Oedipus Myth: A Structuralist Perspective

Claude Lévi-Strauss, a prominent figure in structural anthropology, famously applied his theories to the analysis of myths. One of his most well-known examples is the Oedipus myth. Key Points of Lévi-Strauss' Analysis:

• Myth as Language: Lévi-Strauss viewed myth as a language, operating on a high level of abstraction.

• Structural Analysis: Instead of focusing on the narrative or symbolic meaning of a myth, he broke it down into its constituent elements, which he called mythemes.

• Binary Oppositions: Lévi-Strauss believed that myths often revolve around binary oppositions (e.g., culture vs. nature, life vs. death).

• Mediation: The role of the myth is to mediate these oppositions, to create a logical relationship between them.

Application to the Oedipus Myth:

Lévi-Strauss analyzed the Oedipus myth by breaking it down into its basic components and identifying patterns. He found that the myth revolves around oppositions such as:

• Overcoming vs. being overcome by fate

• Incest vs. exogamy

• Autochthony (originating from the earth) vs. generation

By examining the relationships between these oppositions, Lévi-Strauss argued that the Oedipus myth provides a logical resolution to fundamental human concerns about identity, kinship, and the origin of life.

References

Interpreting Greek Tragedy: Myth, Poetry, Text - Charles Segal - Google Books
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Costing the Dramatic Festivals

Plutarch • On the theatre of the Athenians (from Plutarch's Moralia) University of Chicago

For, if we reckon up the cost of each tragedy, the Athenian people will be seen to have spent more on productions of Bacchae, Phoenissae, Oedipuses, and Antigones, and the woes of Medea and Electra, than they spent in fighting for their supremacy and for their liberty against the barbarians. For the generals often ordered their men to bring along uncooked rations when they led them forth to battle; and the commanders, I can swear, after providing barley-meal and a relish of onions and cheese for the rowers, would embark them on the triremes. But the men who paid for the choruses gave the choristers eels and tender lettuces, roast-beef and marrow, and pampered them for a long time while they were training their voices and living in luxury. The result for the defeated choregoi​ was to be held in contumely and ridicule; but to the victors belonged a tripod,​ which was, as Demetrius says, not a votive offering to commemorate their victory, but a last oblation of their wasted livelihood, an empty memorial of their vanished estates. Such are the returns paid by the poetic art and nothing more splendid ever comes from it.

Costs of the Theatre of Dionysos

Despite not being formally considered part of the sanctuary of the Temple of Dionysos, itself, it was still viewed as an extension of it due to its location by being adjacent to it and its connection with the worship of that god. The responsibility for its upkeep and infrastructure fell to the Polis, the Athenian citizen body; in consequence this was funded by Athens' public purse.

Ticket Prices: Charging for the Theatre in Ancient Athens

Athenians were charged a daily admission fee to attend their theatre at a rate of 2 obols per day per person. This was a radical concept for a religious festival. Financial concerns and the need to fund the events helped the theatre's eventual evolution into a form of mass entertainment. Eric Csapo's research highlights the importance of ticket sales in helping to manage the costs of putting on the festival.

Before permanent stones structures were used, wooden theatres were erected annually by private contractors called theatropolai. This meant that the audience had to be charged entrance fees to help recoup the costs of putting up these wooden theatres, and to make a profit.

Estimated daily attendance and fees for the Great Dionysia in 415 BC suggest earnings that year from ticket sales would have exceeded 1.5 talents. The need to finance the costs of the construction of these temporary theatres supports the theory that there was an early introduction of admission charges that the attendees of the dramatic performances had to pay.

In ancient Athens, the city's theatrical expenses also included having to maintain the stage-building and the furnishing of it with special equipment (all public property): crane(mechane), the ekkyklema and providing financial support to poorer citizens to be able to attend the festivals (theoric handouts). These expenses likely further reduced the city's net profit from the theatre's ticket sales.

The Theatre of Dionysos' Golden Age Under Lycurgus

The reign of Lycurgus, the Athenian statesman and its financial overseer from 338 to 326 BC, marked a pivotal chapter in the history of the Theatre of Dionysos. Prior to his tenure, the theatre was a modest affair, its audience being accommodated on temporary wooden benches nestled against the hillside of the Acropolis. Lycurgus, recognising the cultural significance of theatre, spearheaded a monumental transformation.

His vision yielded a theatre sculpted from stone, replacing the ephemeral with the enduring. Tiered seating carved into the slope significantly increased the capacity, allowing up to 25,000 Athenians to immerse themselves in the spectacle. This grander stage became a focal point for civic life, serving not only as a platform for entertainment but also as a space for fostering community and shared cultural experiences.

With the erection the stone theatre under Lycurgus the need for annual rebuilds and leasing from the private sector was eliminated. This created a more stable source of income for the city from the entrance fees charged for attending the dramatic festivals. Whilst the initial cost was high, it was quickly recouped. With the increased capacity of a stone theatre and the elimination of maintenance expenses, this new model generated significantly more revenue compared to the old wooden theatres, and potentially doubled the city's income from the festivals within a decade and in any case some income drew upon the generosity of private benefactors.

The new stone theatre, with at least twice the seating capacity of its predecessor, became a major source of revenue for the city. Whilst precise figures are unavailable, a rough estimate suggests annual takings of around 20,000 drachmas, based on assumptions about attendance and ticket prices. [A very rough ans approximate calculation might place annual takings in the region of nearly three and a half talents (or 20,000 drachmas, presuming two obols per day attendance for five days for around 12,000 spectators = 3 talents, 20 minims)] This translates to roughly 3.5 talents, a significant sum that highlights the theatre's economic impact. but from this must be deducted the cost of the Theoric handouts, given to the poorer citizens to attend the festivals: these were a major festival expense.

Athenians found much solace in their theatrical heritage (both financial and cultural) during the late classical and early Hellenistic periods.

Demosthenes mentions that the paraskenia was public property, suggesting that all stage equipment was owned by the polis. The archon in charge of the festival likely managed them, hiring carpenters, painters, and others for their upkeep and operation during the contests. Additionally an arkhitekton [master or chief builder] would probably have been employed by the polis and who would had some kind of budget to maintain the structure and the publicly owned parts of the stone theatre.

[Paraskēnion: (παρασκήνιον) – The Ancient Theatre Archive]

Funding of the Great Dionysian Hecatomb or Feast 

A significant part of the extraordinary costs for the Athenian City Dionysia was for the feast held in celebration after the competitions, on account of the massive number of people who were required to be fed (around 15,000). Athenians were renowned especially for their lavish public sacrifices. The fact of this is reflected in the records kept of the huge number of animal hides sold after the major festivals. The scale of this particular feast, alongside that of the Panathenaia, was unmatched elsewhere in Greece. A major part of the funding for this feast in all likelihood must have come from central polis funds, as the festival appeared in the dermatikon accounts (the records of the sale of the hides of the animals which had been slaughtered) unlike that for most other sacrifices which were funded from cult-owned resources. Funding for the great Dionysian Hecatomb perhaps involved alternative funding methods such as individual civic benefaction or a liturgy (hestiatores) which were also used for the other feasts held during the City Dionysian festival.


References

Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener. 2 Bände, Böckh, August - Realschulbuchhandlung, Berlin 1817 https://archive.org/details/diestaatshaushal01boec/page/i/mode/1up?ref=ol&view=theater
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Französische Übersetzung von A. Laligant, Paris 1828

Economie politique des athéniens, ouvrage traduit de l'allemand de M. Auguste Boeckh, par A. Laligant. Tome premier - Internet Archive

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Fontaine, Michael, and Adele C. Scafuro (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Comedy, Oxford Handbooks (2014; online edn, Oxford Academic, 16 Dec. 2013), https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199743544.001.0001, accessed 20 Aug. 2024.
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Zweite Ausgabe.

Keywords for Search: Choregie, Chorege, Liturgie, Theater, Dionysische

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Comparative Costs

Athenian Naval Finance in the Classical Period