Saturday, 10 August 2024

Core Mythemes in Classical Drama - Structuralism

Mythemes, as fundamental narrative units, are deeply embedded in the fabric of Classical drama. These archetypal patterns, often rooted in myth and folklore, provide the underlying structures for the complex plots and character arcs we encounter in the works of playwrights like Sophocles, Euripides, and Aeschylus.

Core Mythemes in Classical Drama

While the specific manifestations vary widely, certain mythemes recur with notable frequency:

The Hero's Journey or Epic: This is perhaps the most recognisable mytheme, present in countless stories across cultures. In Classical drama, it often involves a protagonist who undergoes a series of trials and adventures, facing both internal and external challenges. Oedipus Rex, for example, is a quintessential example of this mytheme.

Hubris and Nemesis: This mytheme explores the downfall of a character due to excessive pride. Figures like Creon in Antigone and Agamemnon in Agamemnon exemplify this tragic flaw leading to their ultimate destruction.

The Oracle and Fate: The concept of destiny, often revealed through prophecies or oracles, is a central element in many Classical dramas. Characters grapple with the inevitability of their fate, leading to complex moral and ethical dilemmas.

The Family Curse: This mytheme often involves a dynasty or family lineage plagued by misfortune or tragedy. The House of Atreus, as depicted in the Oresteia trilogy, is a prime example of a family cursed by violence and retribution.

The Outsider: Characters who are marginalised or excluded from society often play significant roles in Classical drama. Their perspectives challenge the status quo and expose societal flaws. Medea, for example, is an outsider who seeks revenge against a patriarchal society.
Mythemes and Dramatic Structure

Mythemes not only shape the plot but also contribute to the dramatic structure. They can create suspense, tension, and catharsis. The interplay between characters and their roles within the mythemes drives the action and emotional impact of the play.
The Evolution of Mythemes

It's important to note that mythemes are not static entities. They evolve and adapt over time, reflecting the changing values and concerns of different cultures and periods. In Classical drama, these mythemes were often intertwined with religious and philosophical beliefs, creating a rich and complex tapestry of meaning.

Mytheme Analysis of Some Plays 

Mythemes in Euripides' The Bacchae

Euripides' The Bacchae is a rich tapestry of mythological themes and archetypes. These themes, or "mythemes," provide a deeper understanding of the play's central conflicts and explore universal human experiences.

Here are some of the prominent mythemes found in The Bacchae:

1. The Power of the Divine

Dionysos as a Force of Nature: The god Dionysos is depicted as a powerful, uncontrollable force of nature. His ability to inspire madness, ecstasy, and violence highlights the overwhelming power of the divine and its potential to disrupt human order.

Human Hubris: The play explores the theme of human hubris, as King Pentheus defies the power of Dionysos and ultimately faces tragic consequences.

2. The Inevitability of Fate

The Oracle's Prophecy: The oracle's prophecy foreshadows the tragic events that will unfold, emphasizing the inevitability of fate and the limits of human agency.

The Cycle of Violence: The Bacchae suggests that violence and suffering are cyclical, repeating themselves throughout history.

3. The Conflict Between Civilisation and Nature

The City vs. the Wilderness: The play contrasts the ordered, civilised world of Thebes with the wild, untamed nature associated with Dionysos. This conflict reflects the tension between human control and the forces of nature.

The Loss of Control: Pentheus' attempt to control the Bacchic revelry ultimately leads to his downfall, suggesting that humans cannot fully control the natural world or their own passions.

4. The Power of Female Sexuality and Madness

The Maenads: The female followers of Dionysos, the Maenads, are depicted as frenzied, ecstatic figures who embody the power of female sexuality and madness. Their behaviour challenges traditional notions of femininity and social order.

The Threat to Patriarchy: The Maenads' power and their ability to inspire violence pose a threat to the patriarchal order established by Pentheus.

5. The Role of the Outsider

Dionysos as a Stranger: Dionysos is initially seen as an outsider to Theban society, a foreigner who brings with him a different way of life. His presence challenges the established social norms and values.

The Outsider's Perspective: The play offers a perspective on Theban society from the outside, allowing the audience to critically examine its values and assumptions.

Mythemes in Aeschylus' Seven Against Thebes

Aeschylus' "Seven Against Thebes" is a tragedy that explores several key themes:

1. Fate and Free Will: The play delves into the conflict between fate and individual choices. The characters are driven by their destinies, often leading to tragic outcomes. However, their actions and decisions also play a role in shaping their fates.

2. The Curse of Oedipus: The play is deeply rooted in the curse of Oedipus, which continues to plague his family and Thebes. This curse highlights the destructive power of family feuds and the consequences of past actions.

3. Civil War and Fratricide: The central conflict of the play is the civil war between the two brothers, Eteocles and Polyneices, who are fighting for control of Thebes. This theme explores the destructive nature of internal conflict and the tragic consequences of family disputes.

4. The Role of the Gods: The gods play a significant role in the play, both influencing the events and commenting on human actions. This theme raises questions about the nature of divine power and the relationship between gods and mortals.

5. The Nature of Leadership: The play examines the qualities of effective leadership and the dangers of hubris. The characters' actions and decisions reveal the complexities of leadership and the potential consequences of misguided ambition

References

Barthes, R., & Duisit, L. (1975). An Introduction to the Structural Analysis of Narrative. New Literary History, 6(2), 237–272. https://doi.org/10.2307/468419 https://www.jstor.org/stable/468419

Prince, G. (1982). Narrative Analysis and Narratology. New Literary History, 13(2), 179–188. https://doi.org/10.2307/468908 https://www.jstor.org/stable/468908

Todorov, T., & Weinstein, A. (1969). Structural Analysis of Narrative. NOVEL: A Forum on Fiction, 3(1), 70–76. https://doi.org/10.2307/1345003 https://www.jstor.org/stable/1345003

Dundes, A. (1997). Binary Opposition in Myth: The Propp/Lévi-Strauss Debate in Retrospect. Western Folklore, 56(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.2307/1500385  https://www.jstor.org/stable/1500385

THE EVOLUTION OF MYTHS on JSTOR

The Raw and the Cooked : Claude Levi-Strauss - Internet Archive

Structuralism | Definition, Characteristics, & Facts | Britannica



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Thursday, 8 August 2024

Structuralism and Ancient Greek Drama

Structuralism is a theoretical approach that analyses cultural phenomena in terms of their relationship to a larger system. It offers a lens through which to examine the intricate web of meaning in Ancient Greek drama.  By focusing on the underlying structures and patterns rather than individual elements, structuralists can analyse and reveal the deep-seated cultural and symbolic codes that are embedded within these texts.

The father of Structuralism was Claude Levi-Strauss.  Levi-Strauss took ideas from Linguistics. Linguistics is the study of human language.  Levi-Strauss argued that human culture works like a language: human myths, rituals, and customs form a system of meaning. Thus this method of analysing Ancient Greek Drama is therefore very much related to study of the origin of Greek drama as a ritual [see Cambridge Anthropological School on Ritual Origin of Drama in this Blog].

Key Structuralist Concepts as applied to Ancient Greek Drama
 
Binary Oppositions: Structuralists often highlight the use of contrasting pairs (e.g., good vs. evil, order vs. chaos, male vs. female) as fundamental organising principles. In Greek tragedy, these oppositions are frequently explored through character foils, plot developments, and thematic conflicts.
 
Myth and Ritual: Structuralists argue that myths and rituals are interconnected and serve as foundational structures of a culture.

Ancient Greek Drama is deeply rooted in mythological narratives and often reenacts or explores the underlying patterns and tensions present in these myths.

Narrative Structure: By analysing the sequence of events, characters, and conflicts, structuralists can identify recurring patterns and archetypes in Greek Drama. Thus this approach helps to uncover the underlying logic and meaning of the narrative.
 
Language and Symbolism: Structuralists pay close attention to the language used in texts, examining the connotations and symbolic significance of words and images. In Greek drama, the playwrights used language and imagery very carefully and this enabled them to contribute to the overall meaning and power of their plays.

Key Structuralist Concepts As Applied to Greek Drama

Binary Oppositions: Structuralists often focus on the interplay of contrasting elements within a text. In Greek drama, this can be seen in the opposition of:

Order vs. chaos
Human vs. divine
Fate vs. free will
Reason vs. passion

Myth and Ritual: Structuralists argue that myths and rituals are fundamentally linked. Greek drama, deeply rooted in mythological narratives, can be seen as a form of ritualised performance, exploring collective anxieties and desires.

Narrative Structure: By analysing the plot structure of plays, structuralists can identify recurring patterns and archetypal characters. The three unities of time, place, and action, commonly observed in Greek drama, are also subjects of structuralist inquiry.

Language and Symbolism: Structuralists pay close attention to the language and symbolism employed in a text. In Greek drama, the use of metaphors, imagery, and character names can reveal deeper layers of meaning.

Examples of Structuralist Analysis in Greek Drama
 
Oedipus Rex:

This classic tragedy can be analysed through the lens of a system of binary opposites as well as an  exploration of the Oedipus myth and its ritualistic implications

The central opposition is between knowledge and ignorance. Oedipus' pursuit of the knowledge of his origin which ultimately leads to his downfall.

The play's structure is cyclical, mirroring the tragic fate of Oedipus.

Oedipus Rex is often interpreted as having a cyclical structure due to several key elements:Fate and Free Will: 

The play explores the tension between fate and free will, with Oedipus' actions seemingly determined by prophecy yet also driven by his own choices. This creates a sense of a repeating pattern, where actions and consequences intertwine cyclically.

Tragic Hero's Downfall: Oedipus' journey from a revered king to a self-blinded outcast mirrors the cyclical nature of human experience, rising and falling.

Thematic Repetition: The play often repeats motifs and themes, such as sight and blindness, knowledge and ignorance, which contribute to a cyclical sense of the narrative.

Circular Plot Structure: Some critics argue that the play's plot, beginning and ending with Thebes in crisis, creates a circular narrative structure, suggesting a perpetual cycle of suffering and redemption.

The character of Tiresias, the blind prophet, contrasts with Oedipus, the seeing but blind king.

Antigone:

The play explores the conflict between divine law and human law, as represented by Antigone and Creon, respectively.   

The Chorus in Antigone acts as a mediator, representing the voice of reason and the societal norms of Ancient Greece. The play's structure is based on a series of reversals and recognitions all of which lead to the tragic outcome of the play.

Medea:

Medea: Euripides' play can be examined in terms of gender roles, power dynamics, and the clash between human emotions and societal expectations.

The central opposition is between love and hate, passion and reason.

Medea's character can be seen as an archetype of the wronged woman.

The play's structure involves a gradual escalation of violence and revenge.

Mythemes in Classical Drama: A Complex Tapestry

Mythemes, as fundamental narrative units in Myth, are deeply embedded in the fabric of Classical drama. These archetypal patterns, often rooted in myth and folklore, provide the underlying structures for the complex plots and character arcs [the transformation or inner journey of a character over the course of a story/plot] like those which we encounter in the works of playwrights like Sophocles, Euripides, and Aeschylus.

Core Mythemes in Classical Drama

While the specific manifestations vary widely, certain mythemes recur with notable frequency:

The Hero's Journey: This is perhaps the most recognisable mytheme, present in countless stories across cultures. In Classical drama, it often involves a protagonist who undergoes a series of trials, facing both internal and external challenges. Oedipus Rex, for example, is a quintessential example of this mytheme.

Hubris and Nemesis: This mytheme explores the downfall of a character due to excessive pride. Figures like Creon in Antigone and Agamemnon in Agamemnon exemplify this tragic flaw leading to their ultimate destruction.

The Oracle and Fate: The concept of destiny, often revealed through prophecies or oracles, is a central element in many Classical dramas. Characters grapple with the inevitability of their fate, leading to complex moral and ethical dilemmas.

The Family Curse: This mytheme often involves a lineage plagued by misfortune or tragedy. The House of Atreus, as depicted in the Oresteia trilogy, is a prime example of a family cursed by violence and retribution.

The Outsider: Characters who are marginalised or excluded from society often play significant roles in Classical drama. Their perspectives challenge the status quo and expose societal flaws. Medea, for example, is an outsider who seeks revenge against a patriarchal society.
Mythemes and Dramatic Structure

Mythemes not only shape the plot but also contribute to the dramatic structure. They can create suspense, tension, and catharsis. The interplay between characters and their roles within the mythemes drives the action and emotional impact of the play.

The Evolution of Mythemes

It's important to note that mythemes are not static entities. They evolve and adapt over time, reflecting the changing values and concerns of different cultures and periods. In Classical drama, these mythemes were often intertwined with religious and philosophical beliefs, creating a rich and complex tapestry of meaning.

Levi-Strauss and the Oedipus Myth: A Structuralist Perspective

Claude Lévi-Strauss, a prominent figure in structural anthropology, famously applied his theories to the analysis of myths. One of his most well-known examples is the Oedipus myth. Key Points of Lévi-Strauss' Analysis:

  • Myth as Language: Lévi-Strauss viewed myth as a language, operating on a high level of abstraction.

  • Structural Analysis: Instead of focusing on the narrative or symbolic meaning of a myth, he broke it down into its constituent elements, which he called mythemes.

  • Binary Oppositions: Lévi-Strauss believed that myths often revolve around binary oppositions (e.g., culture vs. nature, life vs. death).

  • Mediation: The role of the myth is to mediate these oppositions, to create a logical relationship between them.

Application to the Oedipus Myth:

Lévi-Strauss analyzed the Oedipus myth by breaking it down into its basic components and identifying patterns. He found that the myth revolves around oppositions such as:

  • Overcoming vs. being overcome by fate

  • Incest vs. exogamy

  • Autochthony (originating from the earth) vs. generation

By examining the relationships between these oppositions, Lévi-Strauss argued that the Oedipus myth provides a logical resolution to fundamental human concerns about identity, kinship, and the origin of life.



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Monday, 8 January 2024

Costing the Dramatic Festivals

Plutarch • On the theatre of the Athenians (from Plutarch's Moralia) University of Chicago

For, if we reckon up the cost of each tragedy, the Athenian people will be seen to have spent more on productions of Bacchae, Phoenissae, Oedipuses, and Antigones, and the woes of Medea and Electra, than they spent in fighting for their supremacy and for their liberty against the barbarians. For the generals often ordered their men to bring along uncooked rations when they led them forth to battle; and the commanders, I can swear, after providing barley-meal and a relish of onions and cheese for the rowers, would embark them on the triremes. But the men who paid for the choruses gave the choristers eels and tender lettuces, roast-beef and marrow, and pampered them for a long time while they were training their voices and living in luxury. The result for the defeated choregoi​ was to be held in contumely and ridicule; but to the victors belonged a tripod,​ which was, as Demetrius says, not a votive offering to commemorate their victory, but a last oblation of their wasted livelihood, an empty memorial of their vanished estates. Such are the returns paid by the poetic art and nothing more splendid ever comes from it.

Costs of the Theatre of Dionysos

Despite not being formally considered part of the sanctuary of the Temple of Dionysos, itself, it was still viewed as an extension of it due to its location by being adjacent to it and its connection with the worship of that god. The responsibility for its upkeep and infrastructure fell to the Polis, the Athenian citizen body; in consequence this was funded by Athens' public purse.

Ticket Prices: Charging for the Theatre in Ancient Athens

Athenians were charged a daily admission fee to attend their theatre at a rate of 2 obols per day per person. This was a radical concept for a religious festival. Financial concerns and the need to fund the events helped the theatre's eventual evolution into a form of mass entertainment. Eric Csapo's research highlights the importance of ticket sales in helping to manage the costs of putting on the festival.

Before permanent stones structures were used, wooden theatres were erected annually by private contractors called theatropolai. This meant that the audience had to be charged entrance fees to help recoup the costs of putting up these wooden theatres, and to make a profit.

Estimated daily attendance and fees for the Great Dionysia in 415 BC suggest earnings that year from ticket sales would have exceeded 1.5 talents. The need to finance the costs of the construction of these temporary theatres supports the theory that there was an early introduction of admission charges that the attendees of the dramatic performances had to pay.

In ancient Athens, the city's theatrical expenses also included having to maintain the stage-building and the furnishing of it with special equipment (all public property): crane(mechane), the ekkyklema and providing financial support to poorer citizens to be able to attend the festivals (theoric handouts). These expenses likely further reduced the city's net profit from the theatre's ticket sales.

The Theatre of Dionysos' Golden Age Under Lycurgus

The reign of Lycurgus, the Athenian statesman and its financial overseer from 338 to 326 BC, marked a pivotal chapter in the history of the Theatre of Dionysos. Prior to his tenure, the theatre was a modest affair, its audience being accommodated on temporary wooden benches nestled against the hillside of the Acropolis. Lycurgus, recognising the cultural significance of theatre, spearheaded a monumental transformation.

His vision yielded a theatre sculpted from stone, replacing the ephemeral with the enduring. Tiered seating carved into the slope significantly increased the capacity, allowing up to 25,000 Athenians to immerse themselves in the spectacle. This grander stage became a focal point for civic life, serving not only as a platform for entertainment but also as a space for fostering community and shared cultural experiences.

With the erection the stone theatre under Lycurgus the need for annual rebuilds and leasing from the private sector was eliminated. This created a more stable source of income for the city from the entrance fees charged for attending the dramatic festivals. Whilst the initial cost was high, it was quickly recouped. With the increased capacity of a stone theatre and the elimination of maintenance expenses, this new model generated significantly more revenue compared to the old wooden theatres, and potentially doubled the city's income from the festivals within a decade and in any case some income drew upon the generosity of private benefactors.

The new stone theatre, with at least twice the seating capacity of its predecessor, became a major source of revenue for the city. Whilst precise figures are unavailable, a rough estimate suggests annual takings of around 20,000 drachmas, based on assumptions about attendance and ticket prices. [A very rough ans approximate calculation might place annual takings in the region of nearly three and a half talents (or 20,000 drachmas, presuming two obols per day attendance for five days for around 12,000 spectators = 3 talents, 20 minims)] This translates to roughly 3.5 talents, a significant sum that highlights the theatre's economic impact. but from this must be deducted the cost of the Theoric handouts, given to the poorer citizens to attend the festivals: these were a major festival expense.

Athenians found much solace in their theatrical heritage (both financial and cultural) during the late classical and early Hellenistic periods.

Demosthenes mentions that the paraskenia was public property, suggesting that all stage equipment was owned by the polis. The archon in charge of the festival likely managed them, hiring carpenters, painters, and others for their upkeep and operation during the contests. Additionally an arkhitekton [master or chief builder] would probably have been employed by the polis and who would had some kind of budget to maintain the structure and the publicly owned parts of the stone theatre.

[Paraskēnion: (παρασκήνιον) – The Ancient Theatre Archive]

Funding of the Great Dionysian Hecatomb or Feast 

A significant part of the extraordinary costs for the Athenian City Dionysia was for the feast held in celebration after the competitions, on account of the massive number of people who were required to be fed (around 15,000). Athenians were renowned especially for their lavish public sacrifices. The fact of this is reflected in the records kept of the huge number of animal hides sold after the major festivals. The scale of this particular feast, alongside that of the Panathenaia, was unmatched elsewhere in Greece. A major part of the funding for this feast in all likelihood must have come from central polis funds, as the festival appeared in the dermatikon accounts (the records of the sale of the hides of the animals which had been slaughtered) unlike that for most other sacrifices which were funded from cult-owned resources. Funding for the great Dionysian Hecatomb perhaps involved alternative funding methods such as individual civic benefaction or a liturgy (hestiatores) which were also used for the other feasts held during the City Dionysian festival.


References

Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener. 2 Bände, Böckh, August - Realschulbuchhandlung, Berlin 1817 https://archive.org/details/diestaatshaushal01boec/page/i/mode/1up?ref=ol&view=theater
https://archive.org/details/diestaatshaushal02boec/page/n4/mode/1up?ref=ol&view=theater

Französische Übersetzung von A. Laligant, Paris 1828

Economie politique des athéniens, ouvrage traduit de l'allemand de M. Auguste Boeckh, par A. Laligant. Tome premier - Internet Archive

Economie politique des athéniens, ouvrage traduit de l'allemand de M. Auguste Boeckh, par A. Laligant. Tome second - Internet Archive

Fontaine, Michael, and Adele C. Scafuro (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Comedy, Oxford Handbooks (2014; online edn, Oxford Academic, 16 Dec. 2013), https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199743544.001.0001, accessed 20 Aug. 2024.
Chapter 3: Dionysiac Festivals in Athens and the Financing of Comic Performances by Andronike Makres pp 70-94

Reproduction 
ISBN 9781012679149
Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener Dritter Band : Böckh, August - Internet Archive

Zweite Ausgabe.

Keywords for Search: Choregie, Chorege, Liturgie, Theater, Dionysische

Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener Erster Band: Boeckh August - Internet Archive

Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener Zweiter Band: Boeckh, August - Internet Archive

Englische Übersetzung von George Cornewall Lewis

The Public Economy of Athens ... Translated by George Cornewall Lewis ... Second edition,
by August Boeckh (Author), George Cornewall Lewis (Author)

Chapter List The public economy of Athens : to which is added, A dissertation on the silver mines of Laurion : Boeckh, August - Internet Archive

The Public Economy Of Athens Vol 1: Boeckh, Augustus - Internet Archive

The Public Economy Of Athens Vol.2: Boeckh, Augustus - Internet Archive

BOOK III. Chapter XXII. The Choregia, or furnishing of a Chorus pp.454-61 The Public Economy of Athens Boeckh, August - Internet Archive
Boeckh's German Original Band 1 Buch 22 pp. 600-609 Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener : Boeckh, August - Internet Archive


First published in 1818 The following is a reissue of the German 1886 edition
August Böckh; Max Fränkel: Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener.
by August Böckh and edited by Max Fränkel

ISBN 9780511710650
Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener, Erster Band I (Cambridge Library Collection - Classics)

ISBN 9780511710667
Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener Zweiter Band II: Boeckh, August - Internet Archive

RHODES, P. J. (2013). THE ORGANIZATION OF ATHENIAN PUBLIC FINANCE. Greece & Rome, 60(2), 203–231. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43297472


P. Wilson (2008), “Costing the Dionysia,” in M. Revermann and P. Wilson (eds.), Performance , Iconography , Reception : Studies in Honour of Oliver Taplin (Oxford) pp. 88–127

Pritchard, D. M. (2012). COSTING FESTIVALS AND WAR: SPENDING PRIORITIES OF THE ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY. Historia: Zeitschrift Für Alte Geschichte, 61(1), 18–65. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41342867

Liturgy (ancient Greece) - Wikipedia

Davies, J. K. (1967). Demosthenes on Liturgies: A Note. The Journal of Hellenic Studies, 87, 33–40. https://doi.org/10.2307/627805 https://www.jstor.org/stable/627805

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Csapo, Eric and Wilson, Peter. "The Finance and Organisation of the Athenian Theatre in the Time of Eubulus and Lycurgus". Greek Theatre in the Fourth Century BC, edited by Eric Csapo, Hans Rupprecht Goette, J. Richard Green and Peter Wilson, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2014, pp. 393-424. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110337556.393

The Greek tragic theatre : Baldry, H. C - Internet Archive

The Athenian Institution of the Khoregia by Peter Wilson - Google Books

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The context of ancient drama pp. 119-121 & 141 : Csapo, Eric - Internet Archive

Wilson, P. (2008). Performance, Iconography, Reception: Studies in Honour of Oliver Taplin. Oxford

RHODES, P. J. (2013). THE ORGANIZATION OF ATHENIAN PUBLIC FINANCE. Greece & Rome, 60(2), 203–231. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43297472

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The Greek theater and its drama by Flickinger, Roy C. (1918) pp. 259-
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Athenian Naval Finance in the Classical Period

Ancient Athenian & Attic Festivals - Greek News Agenda

RHODES, P. J. (2013). THE ORGANIZATION OF ATHENIAN PUBLIC FINANCE. Greece & Rome, 60(2), 203–231. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43297472

Public Spending and Democracy in Classical Athens - Google Books

Fiscal Regimes and the Political Economy of Premodern States - Google Books
Chapter 16: Classical Athens by Josiah Ober

Ritual, Finance, Politics - Robin Osborne, Simon Hornblower - Oxford University Press

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Comparative Costs

Athenian Naval Finance in the Classical Period
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