Stagecraft involved the use of techniques by ancient Greek dramatists to create a truly immersive theatrical experience and spectacle [opsis/ὄψις] for their audiences/spectators above and beyond the texts and spoken words of their plays - in essence themise en scèneof a performance or theatrical event. It involved the architectural design of the theatre buildings and their acoustics; stage building (skene/σκηνή) design and how it evolved over time; the involvement of the use of music, song (chanting), dance, and poetry; stage machinery - crane (mekhane/μηχανή), the wheeled platform (ekkyklêma/εκκύκλημα); masks, costumes and drapery; stage properties; stage scenery (periaktoi); the exits and entrances of the actors and stage directions.
Aristotle's Theory of Stagecraft:
Aristotle advises that stagecraft is to be used by the dramatist to create productions which are both effective and aesthetically pleasing. Whilst Aristotle does not delve extensively into the technical aspects of stagecraft or provide detailed instructions on staging drama, his ideas on plot, character, and the overall experience of tragedy all indirectly influence and concern the practical aspects of stagecraft.
Aristotle acknowledges the importance of spectacle (opsis) in a theatrical production. He refers to the importance of visual and auditory elements of performance.
Aristotle discusses the use of costumes and masks in Greek theatre. He notes that costumes should be appropriate to the characters and reflect their social status and the nature of their character. Masks were an integral part of Greek theatre and served multiple purposes: amplifying the voice of an actor, and enabling actors to portray multiple roles. They also help the audience to distinguish between the different characters in a play. In Poetics 1449b22-25 he writes "The use of costume and masks is also necessary. For the face is the most expressive part of the body, and it is therefore important to disguise it, so that the actor can represent different characters." The choreography and movements of the Chorus can be considered as part of stagecraft.
Poetics, Book IV, 1449b10-11. He wrote:
"The Chorus should be regarded as one of the actors; it should be an integral part of the whole, and contribute to the action by its songs and its movements. The movements should be expressive of the emotions, and should be appropriate to the words that are sung."
This suggests that Aristotle believed that the movements of the Chorus should be carefully coordinated with the words of the text, in order to create a more powerful and expressive performance. Aristotle also writes that the Chorus should "not be too numerous," so that they can move around the stage easily and effectively. He also suggests that the Chorus should not be too involved in the action of the play, but should rather "stand apart from it and comment on it."
The scenery used and the setting on the stage should be used to create a sense of place and to help the audience to understand the action of the play. Spectacle (opsis) is a term that includes everything that is presented to the eye through the medium of the actors, whether it be the appearance of the actors themselves, the costume they wear, the scenery, or any other kind of visual effect.
White, J. W. (1891). The “Stage” in Aristophanes. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, 2, 159–205. https://doi.org/10.2307/310333. https://www.jstor.org/stable/310333
English, M. C. (2007). Reconstructing Aristophanic Performance: Stage Properties in “Acharnians.” The Classical World, 100(3), 199–227. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25434022
The origin of the use of the Doric dialect in Greek tragedy is a matter of debate. Some scholars believe that it is a remnant of the original form of tragedy, which was developed in the Dorian Peloponnese. Others believe that it was a deliberate choice by the tragic poets, who wanted to create a more emotional and passionate style of drama.
There is some evidence to support both of these theories. The earliest surviving tragedies, such as those of Aeschylus, do use a number of Doric forms, especially in the choral passages. However, the use of Doric gradually declined over time, and by the time of Euripides, the Attic dialect was the norm.
One possible explanation for this is that the Attic dialect was becoming increasingly dominant in Athens, and the tragic poets wanted to appeal to a wider audience. Another possibility is that the Doric dialect was becoming associated with a more archaic and traditional style of drama, and the tragic poets wanted to create something that was more modern and innovative.
Ultimately, the reason why the Doric dialect was used in Greek tragedy is a mystery. However, it is clear that it played an important role in the development of this genre, and it continues to be a fascinating topic of study for scholars today.
Here are some additional points to consider:
The Doric dialect was spoken in many parts of Greece, including the Peloponnese, Crete, and Sicily. It was also the dialect of Sparta, which was a major cultural and political centre in ancient Greece.
The Doric dialect was known for its strong rhythms and its use of assonance and alliteration. These features may have appealed to the tragic poets, who wanted to create a sense of excitement and drama in their plays.
The Doric dialect was also associated with the worship of Dionysus, the god of wine and revelry. This may have been another reason why the tragic poets chose to use it, as Dionysus was also the patron god of tragedy.
Whatever the reason, the use of the Doric dialect in Greek tragedy is a distinctive feature of this genre. It helps to create a sense of time and place, and it also contributes to the emotional and passionate tone of the plays.
More on why Doric was the favoured dialect for Ancient Greek Tragedy
The use of the Doric dialect in Ancient Greek Tragedy, particularly in the choral parts, is largely due to the conservative nature of literary genres in ancient Greece and the origin of choral lyric poetry.
Here's a breakdown of the reasons:
Association with Choral Lyric Poetry: Greek tragedy is believed to have evolved from earlier choral performances, particularly the dithyramb, which was a hymn sung and danced in honor of Dionysus. This choral lyric poetry, originating in Doric-speaking regions (like Sparta and other parts of the Peloponnese), was traditionally composed in Doric. As tragedy developed, it retained this convention for its choral sections.
Genre-Dialect Association: In ancient Greece, there was a strong tradition of associating specific literary genres with particular dialects. Even when writers were not native speakers of a particular dialect, they would compose in the dialect historically linked to that genre. For example:
Epic poetry (like Homer's) was in a mixed Ionic dialect.
Lyric poetry might be Aeolic.
Choral poetry was Doric.
Attic (the dialect of Athens) became dominant for the spoken dialogue of tragedy and for philosophical/scientific prose.
Origins of Tragedy: While Athenian tragedy was primarily written in Attic, its roots are thought to lie in practices and traditions from Doric-speaking regions. The earliest forms of dramatic performance, including "tragic choruses," existed in Dorian Greece around 600 BC. This early association cemented the use of Doric for the choral elements.
"Rustic" or "Archaic" Connotations (Later Interpretations): Over time, especially from an Athenian perspective, Doric came to be associated with a more "rustic" or "conservative" tone compared to the sophisticated Attic. This might have contributed to its perceived suitability for the more solemn and traditional role of the chorus, which often provided moral commentary or contextual information, connecting the audience to older myths and traditions.
It's important to note that the "Doric" found in Athenian tragedies was often a literary, somewhat conventionalized form of the dialect, and not always a pure reflection of contemporary spoken Doric. It often included elements that were "Atticized" to some degree.
Some further references:-
There's a wealth of free resources available online for learning Ancient Greek! Here's a breakdown of different types of materials and where to find them:
I. Comprehensive Courses & Textbooks:
The Open University's "Learning Ancient Greek" and "Getting Started on Ancient Greek": These offer interactive courses and supplementary materials, including study guides, vocabulary testers, and quizzes for use with the "Reading Greek" series. (https://fass.open.ac.uk/classical-studies/learning-ancient-greek)
"Ancient Greek I: A 21st Century Approach" by Philip S. Peek: This open-access textbook is available for free download in various formats (PDF, eBook, online) and is designed for high school and university students, but suitable for self-learners.It emphasizes memory, analysis, and logic, and includes audio links for pronunciation. (https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/1104, https://www.openbookpublishers.com/books/10.11647/obp.0264)
Ancient Greek Tutorials by Donald J. Mastronarde (AtticGreek.org): This site offers a pronunciation guide, vocabulary lists, verb and noun drills, and more.
"Homeric Greek: a book for beginners" (1920 edition) by Pharr: Available on Archive.org.
"Ancient Greek for Everyone": A free, Creative Commons digital textbook mentioned on Reddit.
First Greek Book by John William White: This digital tutorial, based on the 1896 original, offers a guided curriculum with drill and practice exercises. (https://guides.lib.cua.edu/c.php?g=590082&p=7653847)
Free Greek. Forever.: This site offers scripts, vocabulary lists, grammar notes, audio, printable worksheets, and links to various free grammars (including Jeremy Duff's "The Elements of New Testament Greek") and lexicons. (https://freegreek.online/resources/)
II. Digital Libraries & Text Repositories:
The Perseus Digital Library: An extensive digital library covering the history, literature, and culture of the Greco-Roman world. It includes a large database of Greek texts with translations, images, and resources for textual studies. (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/)
Thesaurus Linguae Graecae (TLG): While a full subscription might be required for complete access, registered users can often access an abridged version with many useful texts. This is a massive digital library of virtually all ancient Greek texts from Homer to 1453 AD.
Library of Ancient Texts Online: Aims to be a comprehensive catalog of online copies of ancient Greek texts, both in Greek and in translation.
The Chicago Homer: A multilingual database focusing on early Greek epic, making features accessible with or without Greek knowledge.
Project Gutenberg: Contains a database of Latin language books, and you may find some Greek texts or related resources there.
Louw & Nida: A lexicon mentioned as freely available on "Free Greek. Forever."
Kypros.org Greek-English Dictionary: An online bilingual Greek-English dictionary.
Perseus Project: A Homeric Dictionary by Georg Autenrieth: Searchable online.
Ancient Greek Lexicon & Syntax: Another resource for vocabulary and grammar.
IV. Grammar & Study Aids:
JACT Greek Summer School Resources: Offers open-access materials including introductions to the alphabet, grammar explanations (verbs, cases, adjectives, tenses), and worksheets. (https://www.greeksummerschool.org/resources/)
Online Greek Grammar Learning Tools & Study Aids: This page provides links to explanatory grammatical pages and charts.
Overview of Greek Syntax by Jeffrey A. Rydberg-Cox: Included in some open-source tools for learning Ancient Greek.
Hoplite Challenge Ancient Greek Verb Conjugator (iPhone/Google Play): A gamified app for verb conjugation practice.
Alpheios: A browser extension and mobile app that helps with reading Classical texts online, providing definitions and conjugations.
V. Other Useful Resources:
Reddit Communities (r/AncientGreek, r/GREEK): These subreddits often have compilations of free resources, discussions, and recommendations from other learners.
YouTube Channels: Many channels offer grammar lectures, pronunciation guides, and readings of Greek texts. Some are linked from "Free Greek. Forever."
Academic Library Guides: University libraries often compile extensive lists of free online resources for classical studies, including Ancient Greek. (e.g., Denison University, Iowa State University, Australian National University, Mount Holyoke College)
When looking for resources, consider whether you're interested in Classical Attic Greek, Koine Greek (Biblical Greek), or Homeric Greek, as some resources specialize in a particular dialect. Good luck with your Ancient Greek studies!
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