Thursday, 10 September 2015

The Chorus in Greek Theatre

Phillip Vellacott:

"But the Chorus are not a character in the story; they are there as a reliable point of reference; they are there to hear, to see, and to comment."

From
Vellacott, P. (1967). The Chorus in Oedipus Tyrannus. Greece and Rome, 14(2), 109-125. doi:10.1017/S0017383500017149
 
Chorus = 

At the beginning of the 5th century B.C. the . Aeschylus when using a Chorus in his plays lowered this to twelve, a number which Euripides also adopted. Whilst the audience the orchestra or the dancing dancing and singing clearly formed a part of what they did. The playwrights considered the the playwrights devoted a large number of lines to them. Indeed Aeschylus probably considered the chorus more important than either Sophocles or Euripides did, if this on the proportion of lines given to them in his plays.

 The dances of the Chorus used different tempos: a walking or stately pace, a striding or dance time, and an excited, running or kicking time: vase paintings show these. The dancing of a Chorus took place in procession, in lines or circles. The songs in the text  describe the steps of the dancers. 

The Chorus thus was largely a song and dance ensemble. Far from being the minor partner in a drama, the Chorus was central to the whole spectacle. Whilst actors spoke, the chorus sang and danced. Lilian B. Lawler has compared the whole experience of ancient Greek theatre for its then audience as being more like attending an opera rather than a dramatic performance.In the plays and theatre of classical ancient Greece the Chorus was a homogeneous, non-individualized group of performers who comment with a collective voice on the dramatic action as it unfolds.

Aristotle states in his Poetics "the Chorus too should be regarded as one of the actors; it should be an integral part of the whole, and share in the action, not in the manner of Euripides but of Sophocles". Modern interpreters think this is too much and suggest rather that choruses communicate more meaning to audiences through their singing and dancing. Far more important than the literal meaning of the chorus' lines were the emotional moods or tones given to an ode sung by the Chorus.

Greek Choruses were generally undramatic. Later on Sophocles made Choruses more relevant to the plot of the play, more integrated into the tragedies than Euripides did.

The Role of the Chorus

In Greek tragedy, anonymous characters are often used to serve various purposes within the play. These characters, who are typically referred to as the "chorus," play a crucial role in providing commentary, expressing the collective voice of the community, and serving as a moral guide for the audience.

One of the main functions of anonymous characters in Greek tragedy is to provide commentary on the events of the play. The chorus often speaks directly to the audience, offering their perspective on the actions and decisions of the main characters. They provide insight into the moral implications of the characters' choices and actions, helping the audience to understand the deeper meaning of the play.

Furthermore, the chorus serves as the collective voice of the community. They represent the citizens of the city-state and their opinions, fears, and concerns. Through their songs and speeches, the chorus reflects the general sentiment of the people, giving the audience a broader understanding of the societal context in which the tragedy unfolds.

The use of anonymous characters also allows for a certain level of universality in Greek tragedy. By not giving individual names or identities to the chorus, the playwrights create characters that can be seen as representative of all humanity. This allows the audience to relate to the chorus on a more personal level, as they embody the common experiences, emotions, and struggles of human existence.

Additionally, the chorus serves as a moral guide for the audience. They often provide advice, warnings, and reflections on ethical dilemmas faced by the main characters. Through their songs and speeches, the chorus encourages the audience to reflect on their own actions and choices, and to consider the consequences of their decisions.

In conclusion, the use of anonymous characters, or the chorus, in Greek tragedy serves multiple purposes. They provide commentary on the events of the play, represent the collective voice of the community, offer a universal perspective, and serve as a moral guide for the audience. Through their presence, the chorus enriches the overall meaning and impact of the tragedy.

In a sense the Chorus are an expression of the "Conscience" of the People, the ordinary men and women of Athens, like the role of Jiminy Cricket in Walt Disney's Pinocchio.

The leader of the Chorus, delivered the lines of spoken verse on behalf of the Chorus as a whole. The aulos  a "double flute"; which was really more like a reed-based oboe-like instrument used to accompany lyric passages that the Choruses danced to. Sometimes the
theatre and drama in Ancient Greece was undertaken by groups of conscripts of young males [Ephebes] and older men but of an age who could perform military service, for their respective choruses and their communities, particularly in Athens. Drama was a show of military precision and excellence. Dance was all important as a demonstration of military discipline. Young men who had just reached military age led the processions during the pompe. The assigned to the Chorus compared to the  total  length  of  the  work, and their  subordination  to  particular characters,  and  other  features  such  as  the  expansion  of  actors’ songs. Gradually the nature of their songs changed from interactions with the actors and the plot of the play to something which Aristotle defined as

The Role of the Chorus as Narrator
On of the prime functions of the Chorus in ancient Greek drama is to act as the Narrator during the plot of the drama as it emerges. The different poets use this function differently:-

Aeschylus

The Chorus in Aeschylus plays a vital role as narrator. They provide the audience with background information, explain the action of the play, and comment on the themes and characters. In some cases, the Chorus may even interact with the other characters on stage.

Some of the specific functions of the Chorus as narrator in Aeschylus include:

Providing background information: The Chorus can be used to provide the audience with important information about the setting, characters, and plot of the play. For example, in the opening chorus of Agamemnon, the Chorus provides the audience with a detailed account of the Trojan War and the events leading up to Agamemnon's return home.
Explaining the action of the play: The Chorus can also be used to explain the action of the play, especially when the action is taking place offstage or is difficult to understand. For example, in the Oresteia, the Chorus often explains what is happening inside the palace of Clytemnestra and Aegisthus.
Commenting on the themes and characters: The Chorus can also be used to comment on the themes and characters of the play. For example, in Prometheus Bound, the Chorus often comments on the themes of justice, suffering, and the relationship between humans and gods.
Interacting with the other characters on stage: In some cases, the Chorus may even interact with the other characters on stage. For example, in Agamemnon, the Chorus challenges Clytemnestra after she murders Agamemnon.
In general, the Chorus in Aeschylus plays an important role as narrator by providing the audience with the information they need to understand and appreciate the play. They also help to create a sense of dramatic irony by commenting on the action of the play in ways that the characters themselves cannot.

Here are some specific examples of the Chorus's role as narrator in Aeschylus's plays:

In Agamemnon, the Chorus provides the audience with a detailed account of the Trojan War and the events leading up to Agamemnon's return home. They also explain the significance of the omens that Clytemnestra sees before Agamemnon's murder.

In The Libation Bearers, the Chorus supports Electra and Orestes in their plan to avenge their father's death. They also comment on the themes of justice and revenge.

In The Eumenides, the Chorus represents the Furies, the spirits of vengeance. They pursue Orestes after he murders Clytemnestra and Aegisthus. However, in the end, they are persuaded by Athena to forgive Orestes and establish a new order of justice in Athens.

The Chorus in Aeschylus is a complex and multifaceted figure. They serve as narrators, commentators, and even participants in the action of the play. Their presence on stage helps to create a rich and immersive theatrical experience for the audience.

In Sophocles' Plays

The main functions of the Chorus are to comment on the action of the play, give back story, and to connect the play to other myths. Sophocles also uses the Chorus to expound upon the play's central themes.

Murnaghan, S. (2012). Sophocles' Choruses. In A Companion to Sophocles, K. Ormand (Ed.). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118350508.ch16


In Euripides' Plays

The chorus in Euripides' plays plays a significant role as narrator. Euripides often uses the chorus to provide background information, summarise events that occur offstage, and narrate scenes that are too complex or expensive to stage. For example, in the play Medea, the chorus narrates the story of Medea's betrayal by Jason and her subsequent revenge. This allows Euripides to tell the story without having to show off all of the gory details onstage.

In addition to providing exposition, the chorus in Euripides' plays also functions as a commentator on the action. The chorus often provides moral or philosophical insights into the events of the play, and it can also offer criticism of the characters or their actions. For example, in the play Hippolytos, the chorus criticises Phaedra for her lustful desires, and it warns her that she will be punished for her sins.

The chorus in Euripides' plays can also be used to create suspense or anticipation. For example, in the play, The Bacchae, the Chorus sings a song about the impending arrival of Dionysos, which creates a sense of excitement and fear in the audience.

Overall, the chorus plays an important role as narrator in Euripides' plays. The chorus provides exposition, commentary, and suspense, all of which help the audience to understand and appreciate the play.

Here are some specific examples of how Euripides uses the chorus as narrator in his plays:

In Medea, the chorus narrates the story of Medea's betrayal by Jason and her subsequent revenge.

In Hippolytos, the chorus narrates the scene in which Phaedra confesses of her love of Hippolytos.

In The Bacchae, the chorus narrates the scene in which Dionysos tears Pentheus to pieces.

In Electra, the chorus narrates the scene in which Electra and Orestes kill their mother Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus.

In Iphigenia at Aulis, the chorus narrates the scene in which Agamemnon sacrifices his daughter Iphigenia to the goddess Artemis

In all of these cases, the chorus provides the audience with information that would otherwise be unavailable to them. By using the chorus as narrator, Euripides is able to tell a far more complex set of stories in his plays and enable him to explore a far wider range of themes.
In Aristophanes

The chorus in Aristophanes' plays serves a variety of functions as narrator, including:

* **Providing commentary on the action:** The chorus often offers its own thoughts and opinions on the events of the play, as well as the characters and their motivations. This commentary can be used to highlight the absurdity of the situation, to provide social or political satire, or to simply offer a different perspective on the action.
* **Advancing the plot:** The chorus can also play an active role in advancing the plot of the play. For example, in *The Frogs*, the chorus helps Dionysus and Xanthias to escape from Hades. In *The Birds*, the chorus helps Peisetaerus and Euelpides to build their bird city.
* **Offering social or political commentary:** Aristophanes' plays are often full of social and political commentary, and the chorus is a key vehicle for this commentary. The chorus can criticize contemporary figures and events, or it can explore more general themes such as war, peace, justice, and equality.
* **Providing comic relief:** The Chorus can also be used to provide comic relief. For example:

In Lysistrata, the Chorus of women engages in a series of bawdy songs and dances. In The Clouds, the Chorus of Strepsiades and his fellow students sing a song about the advantages of being a philosopher.

Here are some other specific examples of the Chorus functioning as narrator in Aristophanes' plays:

In The Frogs, the Chorus of initiates of Eleusis provides commentary on the action throughout the play. For example, during the Parodos, the Chorus sings a song about the importance of initiation into the Eleusinian mysteries. Later in the play, the chorus comments on the musical contest between Dionysos and Aeschylus, and they ultimately help Dionysos to choose Aeschylus as the better poet.

In The Birds, the Chorus of Birds helps Peisetaeros and Euelpides to build their Cloud Cuckoo Land. They also provide commentary on the action, such as when they comment on the various birds who come to join the city. In the final scene of the play, the Chorus leads the celebration of Peisetaerus' marriage to the goddess Basileia.

In Lysistrata, the Chorus of women play a central role in the plot. They persuade the women of Athens and Sparta to withhold sex from their husbands until the war between the two cities is over. The Chorus also provide commentary on the action, such as when they sing a song about the advantages of peace over war.

Overall, the chorus plays a vital role in Aristophanes' plays as narrator. The chorus provides commentary on the action, advances the plot, offers social or political commentary, and provides comic relief. The Chorus also helps to create a sense of community and participation in the audience.

Dance Movements of the Chorus

Prologue [πρόλογος]
The prologue to a play, i.e. all that part of the play, a speech, which precedes the entry of the chorus into the orchestra; typically a monologue presented on the stage by a single actor, as preferred by Euripides in his plays, or a dialogue between two characters as preferred by Sophocles. The speech (or speeches) contains a narrative of facts introductory to the main action of the play. The playwright may uses it to explain the mythological background to the plot of the play and foregoing events. It might comprise one, two or more scenes. During the prologue the playwright tries to establish for the benefit of the audience the themes of the ensuing play and the principal characters' ethoses. The prologue may contain misleading information, and warnings about what could happen during the plot of the play, and anything that the audience might need to expect and know what may happen.

Parodos [πάροδος] (by way of entrance)
Aristotle describes this as the initial or first dance and song performed by the Chorus as they make their entrance into the Orchestra ὀρχήστρα of the theatre, the dancing area, at the start of the play, typically after the prologue has been spoken. It is processional in nature. This is usually composed in anapaests, a metrical foot of two short syllables followed by a long one, uu—, UU— ... . This is a march rhythm, suitable for bringing the Chorus in a procession into the Orchestra. The Parodos typically follows the play's prologue (opening dialogue).  The Parodos served the function of introducing the Chorus to the audience. The Parodos sometimes foreshadows the themes of the play or introduces important characters or symbols to the audience.

Here are some examples of the Parodos from famous Greek tragedies:

  • In Sophocles' Oedipus Rex, the Parodos introduces the Chorus of Theban elders, who sing about the plague that has struck the city.

  • In Sophocles' Antigone, the Parodos introduces the Chorus of Argive women, who sing about the conflict between Antigone and Creon.

  • In Euripides' Medea, the Parodos introduces the Chorus of Corinthian women, who sing about the dangers of love.


Episode (epeisodion or ἐπεισόδιον) (gr. Epeisódion , ' 
Aristotle's Poetics: Complete part of tragedy between full choral songs.

Stasimon [στάσιμον]
 A stasimon is a type of ode sung by the Chorus after the principal actors have left the stage. The Chorus gives the stasimon to set the mood and tone as well as provide additional details on what is taking place before the actors return to the stage.
A regular song and dance performed by the Chorus, so named because it was not sung till the Chorus had taken its stand in the centre of the Orchestra after each episode from the fixed point from where all the dances and movements of the Chorus began and ended   Gottfried Hermann said that the Stasimon was so named, not because the Chorus stood still while they sang it, which they did not, but from its being continuous, and uninterrupted by anapaests or trochees; it was, as we should say, steady: i.e the Chorus danced and sang. a strophe and antistrophe, and perhaps an epode. The Stasimon was not danced in processional formation but typically in lines. When the Chorus comprised 15 persons these lines could be ranged in 3 lines of 5, or 5 lines of 3 persons. A play will contain multiple stasimons performed by the Chorus. 

Kommos [κομμός]
Beating of the breast in lamentation. Generally an optional part of a tragedy, typically scenes containing a songs of lamentation, lyrical scenes in which the actors and the chorus sing together. When Aristotle uses the term kommoi he defines them as lyric exchanges between chorus and actor(s) which are dirges.

Strophe [στροφή
That part of the ode chanted by the Chorus as it moved (danced) in the orchestra advancing in lines from right to the left.

Antistrophe [ἀντιστροφή]
That part of the ode chanted by the Chorus as it moved (danced) in the orchestra retreating back again in lines from left to the right.

The Strophe and Antistrophe were the two parts of the stanzaic forms of the Greek choral ode. The strophe and antistrophe were indentical in metre. As the chorus sang the strophe, they moved from right to left; while singing the antistrophe, they retraced their steps exactly, moving back to their original position.
Strophe ("Turn"), a stanza of a ode sung by the Chorus as it moved in one direction, followed by the antistrophe. symmetrically in construction, where the CHorus turned and moved in exactly the opposite direction.

 Triad. in Greek poetry a group of three lyric stanzas, the first two being the strophe and its opposite the antistrophe, which are symmetrically correspondent in metre but oppositely so, and the third, called an epode. which was modelled differently.


That part of a lyric ode sung after the strophe and antistrophe. The epode, was where and when the chorus sang standing still in the centre of the orchestra.  The chorus, which had previously chanted to right of the altar or stage, and then to left of it, combined and sang in unison, or permitted the coryphaeus to sing for them all, whilst it stood still in the centre of the orchestra.

Exodos [ἔξοδος] (going out)
The final processional dance and song performed by the Chorus as it makes its exit from the orchestra at the end of the play.

Chants of the Chorus

Structure of Tragedy Mastronarde

Parodos
entry of the chorus and the name of the song they sing (or of the chanted anapaests plus song sung) as they enter. The first entry of the chorus was perhaps traditionally onto an empty "stage," but in some plays an actor is present as the chorus enters (and may or may not be acknowledged in their song). In late fifth-century tragedy, as dialogue-scenes had become more important dramatically and the chorus correspondingly less important, an amoibaion sometimes takes the place of the parodos, reducing the chorus' autonomy in the drama.

Epiparodos 
in a few plays the chorus goes off in the middle of the play and then re-enters; scholars have given the name epiparodos ("additional parodos") to such a reappearance and to the song which accompanies it (Aesch. Eum. 244ff., Eur. Helen 515ff.[where, extraordinarily, the chorus had gone into the palace]; cf. Eur. Alcestis 861ff.).

Stasimon
Any extended song of the chorus after the parodos; almost always in antistrophic form. The stasimons tend to get shorter as the play proceeds. In Aesch. a stasimon is sometimes preceded by anapaests. In late fifth-century tragedy, with the diminution of the dramatic weight of the chorus, the interval between stasimons is sometimes very long, and the number of true antistrophic stasimons may be small (e.g. Eur. Helen, Soph. Phil.).

Kommos
Kommos (theatre) - Wikipedia
kommos, a quasi-ritual lament (example = end of Aeschylus' Persians).


Exodos
the scene(s) following the final stasimon. In many plays of Eur. (and in Soph. Phil.) there is a divine epiphany in the exodos. Frequently the crane was employed for the god's appearance through the air: hence theos apo mêchanês, deus ex machina, "god from the crane"), but the god could also appear on the roof of the scene-building (via a ladder or trap-door).

Amoibaion

References

Dionysos, étude sur l'organisation matérielle du théâtre athénien: Octave Navarre - Internet Archive
CHAPITRE XII L'INTERPRÉTATION pp 189 -229
§70. Structure de la tragédie grecque
§71. Structure de la comédie. La parabase.
§72. Déclamation, chant, récitatif.
§73. Formation, marches et évolutions du chœur.
§74. Musique.
§75. Danse.
pp 216-221 §76. La règle des trois acteurs.
pp 221-229 §77. Distribution des rôles entre les acteurs.

Chorus | Definition, History, Examples, & Facts | Britannica
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Simon Hornblower; Antony Spawforth; Esther Eidinow (2012). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. maenads: OUP Oxford. pp. 883–. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8. 

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Prologue - Wikipedia


Stephen Cushman; Clare Cavanagh; Jahan Ramazani (26 August 2012). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics: Fourth Edition. Strophe: Princeton University Press. pp. 1360–. ISBN 1-4008-4142-9.

Stephen Cushman; Clare Cavanagh; Jahan Ramazani (26 August 2012). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics: Fourth Edition. Antistrophe: Princeton University Press. pp. 58–. ISBN 1-4008-4142-9.

Stephen Cushman; Clare Cavanagh; Jahan Ramazani (26 August 2012). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics: Fourth Edition. Stasimon: Princeton University Press. pp. 1359–. ISBN 1-4008-4142-9.

Stephen Cushman; Clare Cavanagh; Jahan Ramazani (26 August 2012). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics: Fourth Edition. Epode: Princeton University Press. pp. 453–. ISBN 1-4008-4142-9.
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Structure of Tragedy

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Gottfried Hermann (1869). Godofredi Hermanni Epitome doctrinae metricae. 
 

Amy Marjorie Dale (1969).

Philip Wentworth Buckham (1830). 

Hermann says, that the Stasimon was so called, not because the Chorus stood still while they sang it, which they did not, but from its being continuous, and uninterrupted by anapaests or trochees; and as we should say, steady: i.e. a strophe and antistrophe, and perhaps an epode." " Mus. Crit. vol. ii. p. 484.

Major, J. R.


George Thomson
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 The Ephebes' Song: Tragôidia and Polis
Author(s): John J. Winkler 
Source: Representations, No. 11 (Summer, 1985), pp. 26-62 
Published by: University of California Press 
Stable URL:

The Hoplite Phalanx with Special Reference to the Poems of Archilochus and Tyrtaeus 
Author(s): H. L. Lorimer 
Source: The Annual of the British School at Athens, Vol. 42 (1947), pp. 76-138 
Published by: British School at Athens 
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Unbroken Law of Interaction of the Chorus with the Actors and the Drama

 In classical Greek tragedy, whilst the Chorus may join in with the dialogue of the actors on the stage to a limited extent, it must never make a set speech, a rhesis; it must never marshal arguments, never try to prove or refute a contention or case, or speak a set piece. The whole art of developing at length on a given subject, called by Aristotle dianoia, is closed to the Chorus. The Chorus must not trespass upon ground of the actors: the Chorus leader may speak to the actors, but must not make speeches.

References

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Albert Weiner
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The Dramatic Festivals Of Athens: Pickard-Cambridge, Arthur - Internet Archive
Chapter V • The Chorus
A. THE CHARACTER, FUNCTIONS, AND MOVEMENTS OF THE CHORUS pp. 232-46
1. Importance and development of the chorus pp. 232-4
2. Number of choreutai pp. 234-6
3. Occasional second chorus pp. 236-7
4. Costume of the chorus. pp. 237-9
5. Movements of the tragic chorus. The parodos pp. 239-44
6. Movements of the comic chorus pp. 244-5
7. Delivery by whole chorus, semichoruses, or single choreutai pp. 245-6

B. DANCING IN DRAMA pp. 246-57
1. Greek views on dancing pp. 246-8
2. Use of hands in the dance pp. 248-9
3. The σχήματα of the dance pp. 249-50
4. History of dramatic dancing pp. 250-1
5. Dancing during stasima pp. 251-2
6. ἐμμέλεια pp. 252-4
7. σίκιννις p. 254
8. ὑπόρχημα 255-7

C. MUSIC IN DRAMA pp 257-62
1. General character p. 257
2. Modes. Testimonia pp. 257-9
3. Mode and feeling pp. 259-60
4. Words and music pp. 260-2
5. Instrumental music p.262


Greek chorus - Wikipedia

Coryphaeus - Wikipedia


Rhesis (Greek rhesis = speech, speaking, saying) refers to in a dialogue in Greek tragedy, a longer speech part. It forms a kind of contrast to stichomythia and serves to substantiate an opinion or viewpoint.
Examples of its use found inter alia in Sophocles' Antigone, verses 450-470 and 473-496.
 

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The Imagery of Euripides: Chapter 2 The Choral Odes: Imagery of Place

The Circle and the Tragic Chorus
J. F. Davidson April 1986
Greece and Rome (Second Series), ,Volume33, Issue01, April 1986, pp 38-46

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The Dance in Ancient Greece
Lillian Brady Lawler
The Classical Journal
Vol. 42, No. 6 (Mar., 1947), pp. 343-349
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Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3291645

Phora, Schêma, Deixis in the Greek Dance
Lillian B. Lawler
Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association
Vol. 85 (1954), pp. 148-158
Published by: Johns Hopkins University Press
DOI: 10.2307/283472

Διπλῆ, διποδία, διποδισμός in the Greek Dance
Lillian B. Lawler
Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association
Vol. 76, (1945) , pp. 59-73
Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press

Gayle Kassing (2007). History of Dance: An Interactive Arts Approach. Human Kinetics. pp. 53–. ISBN 978-0-7360-6035-6.

The Chorus in Greek Life and Drama
Helen H. Bacon
Arion: A Journal of Humanities and the Classics
Third Series, Vol. 3, No. 1, The Chorus in Greek Tragedy and Culture, One (Fall, 1994 - Winter, 1995), pp. 6-24
Published by: Trustees of Boston University; Trustees of Boston University through its publication Arion: A Journal of Humanities and the Classics
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20163562

Steiner, Deborah. “Dancing with the Stars : Choreia in the Third Stasimon of Euripides’ Helen.” Classical Philology, vol. 106, no. 4, 2011, pp. 299–323. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/662037.

Lillian Lawler (1962). Terpsichore: The Story of the Dance in Ancient Greece (Dance perspectives 13) . Dance Perspectives Incorporated.

Lillian Lawler (1964). The Dance in Ancient Greece. A. et C. Black.

Lillian Beatrice Lawler (1964). The dance of the ancient Greek theatre. University of Iowa Press.

F. G. Naerebout (1997). Attractive Performances: Ancient Greek Dance : Three Preliminary Studies. J.C. Gieben. ISBN 978-90-5063-307-9.

Marianne McDonald; Michael Walton (2007). The Cambridge Companion to Greek and Roman Theatre. Chapter 12 Yana Zarifi Chorus and Dance in the Ancient World: Cambridge University Press. pp. 227–. ISBN 978-1-139-82725-6.

Euripides and His Age (1913) by Gilbert Murray
CHAPTER IX THE ART OF EURIPIDES CONTINUED : THE CHORUS : CONCLUSION
Greek Dance
J. W. Fitton December 1973
The Classical Quarterly (New Series), ,Volume23, Issue02, December 1973, pp 254-274
http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0009838800036739

Eirene Visvardi (2015). Emotion in Action: Thucydides and the Tragic Chorus. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-28557-6.

Krêtikôs in the Greek Dance
Lillian B. Lawler
Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association
Vol. 82 (1951), pp. 62-70
Published by: Johns Hopkins University Press
DOI: 10.2307/283420

The Dance of the Owl and Its Significance in the History of Greek Religion and the Drama Author(s): Lillian B. Lawler Source: Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 70 (1939), pp. 482-502 Published by: Johns Hopkins University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/283103

Four Dancers in the Birds of Aristophanes Author(s): Lillian B. Lawler Source: Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 73 (1942), pp. 58-63 Published by: Johns Hopkins University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/283537

Two Notes on the Greek Dance
Author(s): Lillian B. Lawler
Source: The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 69, No. 1 (1948), pp. 87-91
Published by: Johns Hopkins University Press

 "Limewood" Cinesias and the Dithyrambic Dance Author(s): Lillian B. Lawler Source: Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 81 (1950), pp. 78-88 Published by: Johns Hopkins University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/283571

The Maenads: A Contribution to the Study of the Dance in Ancient Greece
Author(s): Lillian B. Lawler
Source: Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, Vol. 6 (1927), pp. 69-112
Published by: University of Michigan Press for the American Academy in Rome

Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4238532

Capps, E. (1895). The Chorus in the Later Greek Drama with Reference to the Stage Question. The American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts, 10(3), 287–325.
https://doi.org/10.2307/496538
https://www.jstor.org/stable/496538

Reviews

Reviewed Work: Terpsichore: The Story of the Dance in Ancient Greece by Lillian B. Lawler
Review by: Douglas Feaver
The Classical World
Vol. 56, No. 2 (Nov., 1962), p. 46
Published by: Johns Hopkins University Press on behalf of the Classical Association of the Atlantic States
DOI: 10.2307/4344947

Reviewed Work: Attractive Performances. Ancient Greek dance: three preliminary studies by F.G. Naerebout
Review by: Paul Van Langenhoven
L'Antiquité Classique
T. 68 (1999), pp. 472-473
Published by: Antiquité Classique
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41634502

Reviewed Work: Terpsichore: The Story of the Dance in Ancient Greece by Lilian B. Lawler
Review by: Francis D. Lazenby
The Classical Journal
Vol. 59, No. 1 (Oct., 1963), pp. 36-37
Published by: Classical Association of the Middle West and South, Inc. (CAMWS)
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3294246

A. M. Dale (24 June 2010). Lyric Metres of Greek Drama. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-14756-9.
https://archive.org/details/lyricmetresofgre0000dale

The lyric poems of Greek tragedy : Parry, Hugh, - Internet Archive

Three Topics in Greek Metre
M. L. West
The Classical Quarterly
Vol. 32, No. 2 (1982), pp. 281-297 (17 pages)
Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical Association
https://www.jstor.org/stable/638567

Anton Bierl, Ritual and Performativity: The Chorus in Old Comedy
Ritual and Performativity: The Chorus in Old Comedy - Anton Bierl

Foster, Margaret, et al., editors. Genre in Archaic and Classical Greek Poetry: Theories and Models: Studies in Archaic and Classical Greek Song, Vol. 4. Vol. 428, Brill, 2020. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctvrzgvzz

The Chorus of Drama in the Fourth Century BCE: Presence and Representation - Lucy C. M. M. Jackson - Google Books

Choruses for Dionysus: Studies in the History of Dithyramb and Tragedy - Internet Archive

Cosmic choruses: Metaphor and performance - CORE

Pickard, J. (1893). The Relative Position of Actors and Chorus in the Greek Theatre of the V Century B. C. III. The Period of Euripides and Aristophanes. The American Journal of Philology, 14(3), 273–304. https://doi.org/10.2307/288072 https://www.jstor.org/stable/288072

The Role of the Chorus in Greek Theatre: 39 Critical Facts - The Drama Teacher

Training a Chorus in Ancient Greece, Journal: Gilgameš, : 2019
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