Ancient Greek Theatre: The Persians

First performed in 472 BC, Persians by Aeschylus is the oldest extant Ancient Greek play ─it is perhaps the earliest surviving Ancient Greek Play of all.

Setting:
The Royal Palace of the the Persians at Susa, a few months after the Battle of Salamis [September 480 BC], which the Persians had lost. The Skene represents the tomb of Darius the Great [Xerxes' father].

Dramatis Personae:
Chorus of Persian Elders
Queen Atossa [mother of Xerxes, wife of Darius, queen mother of Persia]
The Ghost of Darius [the previous Persian king]
Messenger
Xerxes [king of kings Persia]

Summary:

Parodos [Lines 1-154]
Enter The Chorus of Persian Elders. They sing how they have been appointed by their rank to watch over the Persian Empire in the absence of King Xerxes, and how they cannot go to war because of their age.. They chant how Xerxes has summoned a vast and glorious army and navy, recruited from all over the Persian Empire, and taken it to Greece to avenge his father, the dead King Darius, for his defeat at the Battle of Marathon. They sing of their anxiety for the huge land and sea forces that have been sent. They sing of the crossing that Xerxes has made with his army at the Hellespont. And they praise its glory. They sing of the blindness that befalls every mortal, and the loneliness of the Persian women who have been left behind.

Enter Atossa (line 147) They make obeisance to her.

Episode 1 [Lines 155-531]
Atossa is also anxious. She tells of a dream she has had in which her son Xerxes had yoked two beautiful women in fine garb to his chariot, one dressed as a Persian and the other as a Dorian Greek. One was obedient to the tug of the reins and the other struggled in her harness. Her son was then thrown to the ground because the woman in the Greek dress had recalcitrantly tripped up and overturned the chariot. This dream was further reinforced by another vision which she had seen at the sacrificial altar at Darius' tomb, of a falcon attacking a frightened eagle. The eagle was defenceless. She saw these dreams and visions as being ominous.

The Chorus advise her to make further sacrifices to the gods, and to summon the ghost of Darius for his prudence. She seeks answers from the leader of the chorus for news about the war, enquiring where Attica is. She curious to know why Xerxes would be at all interested in an insignificant land which is so far off. She learns of its richness from silver mines, military might and its democratic system of government,

A messenger enters. He announces that Xerxes huge fleet has all been destroyed except for a handful of ships, defeated at the sea battle of Salamis: the shores of that island are now strewn with large numbers of bodies all miserably done to death, The Chorus of Elders lament the losses. Atossa presses the messenger for more details, The messenger tells her that the Greeks had only 300 ships, whereas the Persians had over 1207. The Persians, as they outnumbered the enemy, believed they should have won. She is comforted to learn that her son Xerxes, who had watched the battle from a safe vantage point on a high hill on the land, has survived. The messenger delivered a long list of chiefs, warriors, and troops who will not be coming back home.

Stasimon 1 [Lines 532-597]
The Chorus of Elders sing that it was the gods who brought about the defeat of the Persian fleet. And of how Xerxes had led his men off to foreign lands to die. They lament how king Darius' work had now all been for nothing, that the power of the Persian king is now gone; that the people of the Empire will no longer pay tribute to him or obey him.

Episode 2 [Lines 598-622]
In the second episode the grieving Queen prepares an offering to the gods of the Underworld, hoping that this would bring back the ghost of the late king Darius back to his palace. Just a few years after his death, Persia seems to need his wisdom and military prowess now more than ever.

Stasimon 2 [Lines 623 - 680]
The Chorus sings an ode to summon up the spirit of Darius. They sing of how great the Persian empire once was in the time of the late king Darius. They sing of its former glory. They list all the lands of the Empire he conquered and ruled over. They lament the loss of the battle of Salamis, saying how the gods have caused that loss and how it has brought an end to Persia's glory.

Episode 3 [Lines 681 - 906]
The ghost of Darius appears above his tomb. He learns of the ruin of the Persian fleet and his son's impious yoking of the Hellespont, He reveals his surprise at the speed which an oracle had indeed come true, one which had foretold that the gods would seek vengeance on Xerxes for his hubris, Atossa explains how Xerxes had been incited by the men surrounding him at court telling him all about about his father's glorious exploits. Darius then lists the glorious history of the Persian dynasty, which has now ended with Xerxes' folly and recklessness.

He tells the Persians that they are never again to attack Greece, prophesying that if they did they would suffer a further defeat at Plataea, which would brought on by their blasphemous destruction of Greece's shrines and temples,

The Ghost of Darius tells Queen Atossa to put on her best robes and to comfort her son, and it then disappears back into the ground.

The Queen is sorry for the dishonour which has befallen her son. She exits.

Stasimon 3 [Lines 852 - 907]
The Chorus chant in praise of Persia's former prosperity and glory in the time of Darius.

Exodos [Lines 908-1077]
Enter a folorn and broken Xerxes. He sings a lament [kommos] recalling bitterly his dead comrades and expressing disgust with himself. Xerxes and the Chorus then join together in a long lament for the slain. Exeunt.

Main Themes in Aeschylus' Persians

Aeschylus' Persians is a rich and unique tragedy that explores themes of war, hubris, divine retribution, and the fragility of human power. Here are the main themes:

1. The Folly of Hubris

A central theme in Persians is the catastrophic consequences of hubris (excessive pride or arrogance). The Persian king Xerxes is portrayed as having overreached by attempting to bridge the Hellespont and invade Greece, defying natural and divine boundaries. This act of overconfidence is punished by the gods and results in Persia's crushing defeat.

2. Divine Retribution and Fate

The play emphasizes the role of divine will in human affairs. The gods are shown to punish those who act with arrogance or impiety, reinforcing the idea that human power is limited and subordinate to the divine. Xerxes' failure is not just a military loss but a manifestation of the gods' judgment on his hubris.

3. The Fragility of Empire

The grandeur and might of the Persian Empire are juxtaposed with its vulnerability. Aeschylus explores how even the most powerful empire can be brought low by a single disastrous decision. The defeat at Salamis highlights the ephemeral nature of power and the ease with which it can be shattered.

4. Collective Suffering and Grief

Persians focuses on the collective experience of loss, as seen in the lamentations of the Persian Chorus and Queen Atossa. The play is unusual for Greek tragedy in that it gives voice to the defeated, emphasizing the shared human cost of war and the universal nature of suffering.

5. Cultural Contrast Between East and West

Aeschylus implicitly contrasts Persian monarchy and decadence with Greek freedom and discipline. The Greeks' victory is framed as a triumph of democratic values and strategic skill over autocratic excess and overconfidence. This theme reflects the ideological tensions of the time, particularly in the wake of the Greco-Persian Wars.

6. Warnings Against Overreaching Ambition

The play serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of excessive ambition and the reckless pursuit of glory. Xerxes' campaign is portrayed as a lesson in the perils of ignoring limits, both human and divine.

By weaving these themes together, Aeschylus creates a powerful meditation on war, leadership, and the forces that govern human destiny, making Persians a timeless and thought-provoking work.

References

Xerxes I - Wikipedia
Darius the Great - Wikipedia

Battle of Salamis - Military Wiki - Fandom
Battle of Salamis - Wikipedia
Barry Strauss (16 August 2005). The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece --
and Western Civilization. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-7453-1.

Hellespont (Dardanelles) - Wikipedia
Atossa - Wikipedia
Atossa – Encyclopaedia Iranica

The Persians - Wikipedia
Persians by Aeschylus - GreekMythology.com

Aeschylus: Persians (Πέρσαι) - Wiley Online Library

The Persians - Aeschylus - Ancient Greece - Classical Literature

A Guide to Aeschylus’s “Persians” - The Getty Iris

The Persians - Course Hero

Aeschylus (1996 edition) - Open Library

Aeschylus: The Persians - Tom's Learning Notes

The Interpretation of Aeschylus' Persae on JSTOR

Greek Editions

Πέρσαι - Βικιθήκη

Aeschylus, Persians - Perseus Digital Library

Persae : Aeschylus - Internet Archive editied by A. Sidgwick

Scaife Viewer | Περσαι -Perseus Digital Library

Aeschylos Perser : Aeschylus - Internet Archive

The Persae of Aeschylus - Aeschylus - Google Books
The Persae of Aeschylus : Aeschylus - Internet Archive

Persians - Aeschylus - Google Books ed and trans. Edith Hall (Aris & Phillips Classical Texts)

Translations:

Four Plays of Aeschylus (1908) Morshead/Persians - Wikisource [includes audio]

Persians (Aeschylus) - Wikisource