Monday, 25 November 2013

Aristotle's Poetics 4th century BC,

Written in the 4th century BC Aristotle's Poetics is perhaps the earliest surviving work of dramatic theory. His book give us an insightful account of the theory of Greek tragedy. It seeks to explain how the elements of plot, character and spectacle all combine to produce feelings of shame and fear in us, and yet paradoxically pleasure (kalon) seems to derive from this apparently painful process. It presents the essential concepts of mimesis ('imitation'), hamartia ('fault') and catharsis ('purification'), all of which have been of serious concern to the theatre and dramtists ever since. It looks at why mythological heroes, although idealized figures of imagination, are still true to reality, all of which Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides brought to life on the stage. He explains how the best and most effective plays are ones based on complication and resolution, recognition ('anagnorisis') and reversal.

Chapter 6 contains Aristotle's famous definition of Tragedy:

Tragedy is a literary imitation of a sequence of actions, a sequence that is serious, complete in itself, and large in scope; its language is rendered pleasant sometimes by metrical means and sometimes by the addition of music; it is dramatic and not narrative; and by pity and fear brings about a katharsis of those emotions.

In this chapter Aristotle lists the components of Tragedy: plot, characterisation, diction, sentiment and arguments expressed in the dialogue, visual effects and music. Emphatically Aristotle says that the most important of these is plot.

Essentially Aristotle was a self-taught observational biologist. He saw living things evolving in an organic sense, not in a Darwinian sense that we might understand today, but as how embryos grow and develop from  an undifferentiated form, later called the Science of Epigenesis  In this sense Aristotle saw the world and things in it as a biological universe This type of thinking pervades all of his philosophy.


Aristotle's Dionysian Matrix - Eric Csapo


Main Themes of Aristotle's Poetics

Aristotle's Poetics is one of the earliest and most influential works of literary criticism and theory. It primarily deals with the nature, purpose, and components of tragedy, but also touches on other forms of poetry. Below are the main themes explored in the Poetics:

1. Mimesis (Imitation)

  • Aristotle defines poetry as a form of mimesis, or imitation, which he sees as a natural human activity. Through imitation, art represents life, actions, and emotions in a way that evokes understanding and emotional response. For Aristotle, mimesis is not a mere copying but an imaginative recreation of reality that aims to convey universal truths.

2. Catharsis

  • One of the most discussed concepts in the Poetics is catharsis, which refers to the emotional effect of tragedy on the audience. By experiencing pity and fear through the events of a tragedy, the audience undergoes a purging or cleansing of these emotions, achieving a sense of emotional relief and insight.

3. The Structure of Tragedy

  • Aristotle outlines the essential components of a successful tragedy:
    • Plot (mythos): The most important element, it should be coherent, unified, and include a beginning, middle, and end.
    • Character (ethos): Characters must be consistent, believable, and act according to their nature.
    • Thought (dianoia): Refers to the ideas and themes conveyed by the work.
    • Diction (lexis): The language and expression used in the text.
    • Song (melopoiia): Musical elements of the tragedy, contributing to its overall aesthetic.
    • Spectacle (opsis): Visual elements, though Aristotle considers this the least important aspect.

4. The Role of Plot

  • Aristotle emphasises that the plot is the soul of tragedy. A good plot should have unity and should be complex rather than simple. He introduces the concepts of:
    • Peripeteia (Reversal): A sudden change in the protagonist’s fortune.
    • Anagnorisis (Recognition): A moment of critical discovery or realization.
    • Hamartia (Tragic Flaw): A character flaw or error in judgment that leads to the protagonist's downfall.

5. The Universality of Tragedy

  • For Aristotle, tragedy does not merely depict specific events or individuals but reveals universal truths about human nature and the human condition. This universal aspect makes tragedy intellectually and emotionally engaging.

6. The Distinction Between Tragedy and Epic Poetry

  • Aristotle compares tragedy with epic poetry, noting their similarities and differences. While both use elevated language and deal with noble characters, tragedy is more concentrated, focused, and dramatic, while epic poetry is broader and allows for more digressions.

7. The Purpose of Art

  • Aristotle believes art serves an educational and moral purpose. By engaging with art, individuals can learn about virtue, human behavior, and the consequences of actions.

8. Unity of Action

  • Aristotle emphasises the importance of the unity of action, meaning that all elements of the plot must contribute to the overall story and its emotional effect. Subplots or irrelevant incidents dilute the unity of a tragedy.

These themes underscore Aristotle's exploration of the principles that make a work of art successful, particularly in the context of tragedy, and his insights remain a cornerstone of literary criticism.

Aristotle's Theory of Drama

Core Concepts from Aristotle's Poetics:

Mimesis (μίμησις): Imitation or Representation. Aristotle considered poetry (including drama) an art of imitation. Drama imitates life and action.
Tragedy ( τραγῳδία): Defined by Aristotle as "an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper1 purgation [catharsis] of these emotions."  

The Six Parts/Elements of Tragedy: Aristotle identified six components, ranking them in importance:

Mythos (μῦθος): Plot. The arrangement of incidents, the structure of the action. Aristotle considered this the most important element, the "soul of tragedy."
Completeness: Must have a distinct beginning, middle, and end.

Magnitude (μέγεθος): Must be of appropriate length and scope – neither too small nor too vast to be comprehended.

Unity (ἑνότης): Primarily Unity of Action – the plot should concern itself with one main action. (Unity of Time and Place are later interpretations, though Aristotle notes tragedy often tries to confine itself to a single day).

Probability/Necessity (τὸ εἰκὸς καὶ ἀναγκαῖον): The events should follow each other logically and credibly within the world of the play.
Simple vs. Complex Plots: Complex plots involve Peripeteia and/or Anagnorisis.

Ethos (ἦθος): Character. The qualities and motivations of the agents in the drama. Characters should be:
Good (relative to their station/role).
Appropriate (true to type/status).
Consistent (true to their own nature throughout).
True to life (believable).
Dianoia (διάνοια): Thought/Theme. The intellectual element – what the characters say or think that reveals themes, arguments, or general truths. The reasoning and rhetoric expressed.
Lexis (λέξις): Diction/Language. The expression of meaning through words. This includes meter, vocabulary, and style of language used.
Melos (μέλος): Melody/Song. The musical element, particularly the songs of the Chorus. Important in Greek tragedy, which had significant musical components.
Opsis (ὄψις): Spectacle. The visual elements of the production – costumes, scenery, masks, stage machinery. Aristotle considered this the least artistic element, related more to the stagehand than the poet.
Catharsis (κάθαρσις): Purgation, purification, or clarification. The intended effect of tragedy on the audience, achieved by arousing emotions of pity (for undeserved suffering) and fear (that such events could happen to us) and then purging or refining these emotions.
Hamartia (ἁμαρτία): Often translated as "tragic flaw," but more accurately means an "error," "mistake," or "misjudgment" made by the protagonist, often stemming from ignorance or a moral blind spot, which leads to their downfall. It's not necessarily a deep character defect.
Peripeteia (περιπέτεια): Reversal. A sudden change of fortune or situation for the protagonist, often from good to bad. A key element of complex plots.
Anagnorisis (ἀναγνώρισις): Recognition or Discovery. A change from ignorance to knowledge, often involving the protagonist recognising a critical truth about their situation, identity, or the identity of others. Also characteristic of complex plots, and most effective when linked directly with the Peripeteia.
Pathos (πάθος): Suffering. A destructive or painful action (like deaths on stage, agony, woundings) that evokes pity. Often a consequence of Hamartia and part of the Peripeteia.

Aristotle (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

Ancient Greek authors, Aristotle - Archive.org

Aristotle (384-322 BCE) - The Embryo Project Encyclopedia
Archived

Classical unities - Wikipedia

The Importance of Tragedy - Oxbridge Applications
What are the three rules of Greek tragedy?
The three unities are:
unity of action: a tragedy should have one principal action.
unity of time: the action in a tragedy should occur over a period of no more than 24 hours.
unity of place: a tragedy should exist in a single physical location.

Aristotle defined three key elements which make a tragedy: harmartia, anagnorisis, and peripeteia.

Hamartia is a hero's tragic flaw; the aspect of the character which ultimately leads to their downfall.

Anagnorisis is the recognition or realisation by the principal tragic character of the truth of his/her situation.

Peripeteia is a sudden reversal of fortune.
What are the five 5 main structural features of Greek tragedy?

Aristotle names the basic parts as Prologos, Parodos, Epeisodion, Stasimon, and Exodos. Aristotle mentions another, optional, element—the Kommos, an antiphonal lament delivered by the chorus in the orchestra and actors on the stage.
What are the six main elements of a Greek tragedy? According to Aristotle, tragedy has six main elements, including plot, character, diction, thought, spectacle, and song.
Philosophy of Theater (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
Aristotle’s Poetics Study Guide - GradeSaver
https://bit.ly/2VUtl2K

The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics - Internet Archive
[Review the articles on: antistrophe; epode; parabasis; stasimon; strophe.]

Aristoteles; Gottfried Hermann (1802). Aristotelis De arte poetica liber. Fleischer. 

Gerald Frank Else (1957). Aristotle's poetics: the argument... Brill Archive.





The poetics of Aristotle - Aristotle

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Has articles on Aristotle, including his aesthetics.
https://plato.stanford.edu/

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Similar resource covering Aristotle's concepts.
https://iep.utm.edu/

Stephen Halliwell; Aristotle (December 1998). Aristotle's Poetics. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31394-8.

Gerald Frank Else (1957). Aristotle's poetics: the argument... Brill Archive.
Gerald Frank Else (1986). Plato and Aristotle on poetry. University of North Carolina Press.

Aristotle; Gerald Frank Else (1970). Poetics. University of Michigan Press. pp. 1–. ISBN 0-472-06166-6.

KIRBY, J. T. (1991). ARISTOTLE’S “POETICS”: THE RHETORICAL PRINCIPLE. Arethusa, 24(2), 197–217. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26309403

Malcolm Heath (1 January 1987). The Poetics of Greek Tragedy. Stanford University Press. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-0-8047-1398-6.

Aristotle; Longinus; Stephen Halliwell; Demetrius, Donald Andrew Russell, Doreen Innes. Aristotle. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-99563-5.
Aristotle in 23 Volumes, Vol. 23, translated by W.H. Fyfe (1932).
Aristotle, Poetics, Perseus Project section 1447a
  
BBC Radio 4 In Our Time with Melvyn Bragg
Aristotle's Poetics

BBC Radio 4 - In Our Time, The Greek Myths



Aristotle (2006). Poetics. ISBN 978-81-317-0689-3.

Gunter Gebauer; Christoph Wulf (1995). Mimesis: Culture, Art, Society. University of California Press. pp. 53–. ISBN 978-0-520-08459-9.

Walter Watson (2012). The Lost Second Book of Aristotle's "Poetics". University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-87508-8. 

Avicenna. Avicenna's Commentary on the Poetics of Aristotle: A Critical Study with an Annotated Translation of the Text. Brill Archive.. ISBN 90-04-03962-7.

Greek Tragedy (Penguin Classics) Imperial Library of Trantor
Preface to Poetics and Extracts from Poetics by Aristotle

The Poetics. Translated from Greek into English and from Arabic into Latin with a rev. text, introd., commentary, glossary and onomasticon: Aristotle - Internet Archive

Tractatus Coislinianus

Aristotle; Richard Janko (1987). Aristotle: Poetics: With the Tractatus Coislinianus, Reconstruction of Poetics II, and the Fragments of the On Poets Hackett Publishing. ISBN 0-87220-033-7.

Aristotle on comedy: towards a reconstruction of Poetics II: Janko, Richard - Internet Archive

Omert J. Schrier (1998). The Poetics of Aristotle and the Tractatus Coislinianus: A Bibliography from About 900 Till 1996. BRILL.ISBN 90-04-11132-8.

Who "Invented" Comedy? The Ancient Candidates for the Origins of Comedy and the Visual Evidence
Jeffrey Rusten
The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 127, No. 1 (Spring, 2006), pp. 37-66

Rosenstein, Leon. “On Aristotle and Thought in the Drama.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 3, no. 3, 1977, pp. 543–565. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1342939.

WISE, JENNIFER. “TRAGEDY AS ‘AN AUGURY OF A HAPPY LIFE.’” Arethusa, vol. 41, no. 3, 2008, pp. 381–410. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/44578286.

HANINK, JOHANNA. “ARISTOTLE AND THE TRAGIC THEATER IN THE FOURTH CENTURY B.C.: A RESPONSE TO JENNIFER WISE.” Arethusa, vol. 44, no. 3, 2011, pp. 311–328. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/44578369.



Greek rhetoric before Aristotle : Enos, Richard Leo - Internet Archive

Gould, T. (1990). The Ancient Quarrel Between Poetry and Philosophy. Princeton University Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7zvxg5


Aristotle's Concept of Harmatia and Theory of Tragedy in Poetics

1. Introduction

Aristotle's Poetics stands as a seminal work in the landscape of literary theory and dramatic criticism. Its enduring influence spans centuries, providing a foundational framework for understanding the principles of tragedy and narrative construction.1 The concepts elucidated within this treatise continue to inform and shape modern storytelling across various media, demonstrating the timeless quality of Aristotle's observations on dramatic art.1 This report aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of Aristotle's concept of Harmatia, a pivotal element in his theory of tragedy, and to explore his broader framework for understanding tragic drama as presented in Poetics. The analysis will delve into the definition and diverse scholarly interpretations of Harmatia, examine Aristotle's definition of tragedy and its constituent elements, discuss the crucial role of plot, analyse the characteristics of the ideal tragic hero, and explore his views on the emotional impact of tragedy, specifically pity, fear, and catharsis.

2. Aristotle's Concept of Harmatia

  • 2.1 Defining Harmatia: Etymology and Initial Interpretations

The term "hamartia" (ἁμαρτία) originates from the Greek verb "hamartanein" (ἁμαρτάνειν), which literally translates to "to miss the mark" or "to err".4 This etymological foundation suggests an objective meaning, indicating a failure to reach an intended target or the act of making a mistake, devoid of inherent moral judgment.5 Aristotle introduced the term in his Poetics to specifically describe the error in judgment that ultimately precipitates the downfall of the tragic hero.4 This concept is central to understanding the reversal of fortune experienced by the protagonist in a tragedy.5 Early interpretations of Harmatia primarily understood it as an "error of judgment".10 This initial understanding leaned towards viewing Harmatia as an intellectual mistake or a miscalculation on the part of the hero, rather than a deliberate moral failing.12 Ingram Bywater's translation of "hamartia" as "error of judgement" in his edition of Poetics exemplifies this early focus on cognitive error.12

  • 2.2 The Evolution of Understanding: From Error to Tragic Flaw

Over time, the interpretation of Harmatia has broadened to encompass the notion of a "tragic flaw" or a defect in the hero's character.4 This modern understanding often equates Harmatia with an inherent weakness or flaw in the hero's personality that contributes to their demise.4 However, it is important to note that this flaw is not necessarily a morally reprehensible one. Indeed, it can sometimes manifest as an apparently positive quality taken to an extreme, such as excessive trust or intense love.6 For instance, a virtuous trait like pride, when exaggerated to the point of hubris, can become a "great error" leading to tragic consequences.6 This complexity highlights that Harmatia is not simply a vice but can be a more nuanced aspect of the hero's character or actions.

  • 2.3 Scholarly Interpretations and Debates

The precise nature of Harmatia remains a subject of ongoing debate among scholars, with differing views on whether it should be primarily understood as a "tragic flaw" (a weakness in moral character) or a "tragic error" (an error in judgment, often due to ignorance).5 This lack of a single, universally accepted definition contributes to the diverse analyses of tragic heroes in literature.5 Some scholars argue that Harmatia involves a degree of moral responsibility on the part of the hero for their misfortune.13 This perspective suggests that the hero's downfall is at least partially attributable to a weakness in their moral character, potentially linked to what has been described as "qualified weakness of will" (θυμός) or an excessive pursuit of seemingly desirable things.13 The idea here is that the hero might be blinded by their temper or an overwhelming desire, leading them to make choices that result in tragedy. Conversely, other scholars argue that Harmatia is primarily an error in judgment stemming from ignorance of crucial facts or circumstances, for which the hero may not bear full responsibility.5 This interpretation emphasizes the unintentional nature of the hero's actions leading to the tragic outcome.5 The example of Oedipus's ignorance regarding his true parentage is frequently cited to support this view, as his actions, though horrific in their consequences, were committed without knowledge of his relationship to Laius and Jocasta.5

Another perspective posits that Harmatia is not necessarily a moral failing but rather a more neutral term that signifies "missing the mark" or falling short of an intended objective.8 In this sense, Harmatia can be seen as a deviation from a desired path or outcome, without carrying an inherent moral judgment.5 This aligns with the etymological root of the word, which simply means "to miss the mark." Finally, the relationship between Harmatia and external forces such as fate or divine intervention is also considered.5 The interplay between human agency, represented by Harmatia, and the predetermined course of fate adds another layer of complexity to the tragic narrative.14 Some interpretations even suggest that Harmatia can be the very means through which fate unfolds in the lives of tragic heroes.14

3. Aristotle's Definition of Tragedy

  • 3.1 Presenting the Formal Definition

Aristotle's formal definition of tragedy in Poetics outlines its essential characteristics: "Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious and also, as having magnitude, complete in itself; in language with pleasurable accessories, each kind brought in separately in the parts of the work; in a dramatic, not in a narrative form; with incidents arousing pity and fear, wherewith to accomplish its catharsis of such emotions".18 This definition is comprehensive, encompassing various aspects of tragic drama.18 It emphasizes that tragedy is an imitation (mimesis) 18 of an action that is serious and complete, possessing a certain magnitude.18 This signifies that tragedy is not merely a recounting of events but a carefully crafted representation with a specific artistic purpose.27 Furthermore, Aristotle highlights the use of embellished language, the dramatic form of presentation through action rather than narration, and the crucial element of arousing pity and fear in the audience, ultimately leading to a catharsis of these emotions.9 The emotional impact and the specific means by which it is achieved are therefore central to Aristotle's definition of tragedy.18

  • 3.2 The Six Key Elements of Tragedy

Aristotle further breaks down tragedy into six constituent parts, presented in order of their importance: Plot (Mythos), Character (Ethos), Thought (Dianoia), Diction (Lexis), Song (Melos), and Spectacle (Opsis).3 This framework provides a structured approach to analysing and understanding the components that contribute to a successful tragedy.3




*   **Plot (Mythos)**: Aristotle considers the plot to be the most important element, referring to it as the "soul of tragedy".[3, 9, 15, 18, 25, 30, 33, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 49, 51, 52] He argues that the action and the arrangement of incidents are more fundamental to tragedy than character alone, as tragedy is essentially an imitation of action and life, and happiness or unhappiness are inextricably linked to action.[9, 40, 41] A well-constructed plot must be complete, possessing a beginning, middle, and end, and exhibit unity of action, where all events are interconnected and contribute to the central theme.[9, 18, 29, 30, 33, 34, 42, 43, 47, 48, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58] This ensures internal coherence and a logical progression of events.[31, 53] Aristotle also distinguishes between simple plots, which involve only a change of fortune, and complex plots, which include reversal (peripeteia) and recognition (anagnorisis).[9, 18, 30, 33, 37, 42, 43, 47, 52, 55, 59, 60, 61] He considers complex plots to be superior in their ability to evoke tragic pleasure.[6, 37, 39, 42, 55, 62]

*   **Character (Ethos)**: While secondary to plot, character is essential for driving the action and evoking emotions in the audience.[3, 9, 15, 18, 25, 30, 33, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69] According to Aristotle, tragic characters should generally be good, appropriate to their role, realistic in their portrayal, and consistent in their behaviour.[18, 29, 31] The ideal tragic hero possesses noble stature but is neither perfectly virtuous nor utterly wicked, making them relatable to the audience.[5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 15, 16, 18, 25, 32, 42, 47, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74] The hero's imperfections and relatable nature are crucial for arousing the tragic emotions of pity and fear.[9, 16, 18, 25, 32, 47, 65, 66, 68, 69, 74]

*   **Thought (Dianoia)**: This element refers to the reasoning, opinions, values, and intentions of the characters as revealed through their speech.[3, 9, 15, 18, 30, 31, 38, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 48, 51, 52, 75, 76] Thought is closely linked to rhetoric and the art of persuasion, as characters use language to prove points, arouse emotions, and express general truths.[25, 40, 41, 75]

*   **Diction (Lexis)**: Diction encompasses the language used in the tragedy, including the choice of words, their arrangement, and the style of delivery, all of which are important for conveying meaning and emotion.[3, 9, 15, 18, 25, 30, 31, 33, 35, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 48, 49, 51, 52, 75, 76, 77, 78] Aristotle emphasizes that tragic diction should be clear and appropriate, avoiding both obscurity and vulgarity, while also being embellished to maintain dignity.[18, 31, 75, 77]

*   **Song (Melos)**: This element refers to the musical components of the tragedy, particularly the role of the chorus, which enhances the emotional impact of the play.[3, 9, 15, 18, 30, 33, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 48, 49, 51, 52, 79, 80, 81] Song is considered an embellishment that contributes to the overall pleasure experienced through tragedy.[40, 44]

*   **Spectacle (Opsis)**: Spectacle refers to the visual aspects of the tragedy, such as costumes, scenery, and staging, which contribute to the sensory experience of the audience.[3, 9, 15, 18, 25, 30, 33, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 48, 49, 51, 52, 79, 80, 81] While it has an emotional attraction, Aristotle ranks spectacle as the least important element, as the power of tragedy can be felt even through reading the text without a performance.[40, 41, 44, 49, 81]

4. The Significance of Plot in Tragedy

  • 4.1 Unity of Action

The concept of unity of action is crucial in Aristotle's theory of plot. It dictates that a tragedy should focus on a single, complete action, with all the events in the plot being interconnected and contributing to the central theme.9 This unity ensures clarity in the narrative and enhances the emotional impact by maintaining a focused storyline.43 All events within the plot should be causally linked, with subsequent actions being necessary or probable outcomes of the preceding ones, creating a sense of logical progression.29

  • 4.2 Reversal (Peripeteia)

Peripeteia is defined as a sudden reversal of fortune or a change in circumstances, often from a state of happiness to misery, that occurs as a consequence of the hero's actions or a turn of events within the plot.9 This reversal often takes the audience by surprise and heightens the emotional intensity of the tragedy.25 It serves as a critical turning point in the narrative where the situation veers sharply to its opposite.

  • 4.3 Recognition (Anagnorisis)

Anagnorisis is a change from ignorance to knowledge, frequently involving the discovery of the true identity of a character or the revelation of the true nature of events.9 This moment of recognition often occurs at the climax of the tragedy and can coincide with peripeteia to create a powerful impact on both the characters and the audience.25 It is a crucial element for the hero's understanding of their situation and for the resolution of the plot's complexities.

  • 4.4 The Interplay of Reversal and Recognition

Aristotle considered the finest form of recognition to be that which is accompanied by a reversal of fortune, as exemplified in Oedipus Rex.9 The combination of these two elements intensifies the tragic effect and evokes stronger feelings of pity and fear in the audience.9 The unexpected catastrophe that results from the moment of recognition significantly heightens the emotional response to the tragedy.

5. The Ideal Tragic Hero and Harmatia

  • 5.1 Characteristics of the Tragic Hero

The ideal tragic hero, according to Aristotle, is a character of noble stature who occupies an elevated position in society.5 This hero is neither perfectly virtuous nor utterly wicked but exists in an intermediate state, possessing qualities that allow the audience to identify with them and their plight.9 This intermediate moral standing is essential for the audience to feel both pity for the hero's suffering and a sense of shared humanity, recognising their own potential for similar errors and misfortunes. Extremes of perfect virtue or utter vice would hinder the desired emotional response, as the audience would either be outraged by undeserved suffering or feel the villain received their just deserts.

  • 5.2 The Role of Harmatia in the Hero's Downfall

The tragic hero's misfortune in a tragedy should not be the result of pure vice or depravity but should be brought about by some error or frailty, which Aristotle terms Harmatia.5 Harmatia acts as the catalyst that initiates the chain of events leading to the hero's tragic end.5 It is the hero's own mistake, error in judgment, or character flaw that triggers the reversal of fortune, ultimately leading to their downfall.

  • 5.3 Examples of Harmatia in Tragic Heroes

The tragedy of Oedipus in Sophocles' Oedipus Rex serves as a prime example of how Harmatia leads to a tragic hero's downfall.5 Oedipus's Harmatia is often interpreted as a combination of his excessive pride (hubris) and his ignorance of his true identity.71 His relentless pursuit of truth, even when warned of the potential consequences, exemplifies how a seemingly positive trait, his dedication to his people and his desire to solve the mystery of the plague, can become a Harmatia.71 Coupled with his initial ignorance of his parentage and his rash actions, such as killing Laius at the crossroads, Oedipus's character and choices lead him inexorably towards the tragic revelation and his subsequent downfall. While later tragic heroes like Hamlet, with his irresolution, or Othello, with his jealousy, are sometimes analysed through the lens of Harmatia, it is important to note that these interpretations can sometimes simplify the original Aristotelian concept, which placed a greater emphasis on error in judgment rather than inherent character flaws.10

6. The Emotional Impact: Pity, Fear, and Catharsis

  • 6.1 Arousing Pity and Fear

Aristotle posits that the primary function of tragedy is to evoke the emotions of pity and fear in the audience.9 Pity is aroused when the audience witnesses unmerited misfortune befalling a character, while fear stems from the recognition that such suffering could also befall someone similar to themselves.9 The plot, particularly the unexpected reversal of fortune (peripeteia) and the moment of crucial recognition (anagnorisis), plays a significant role in eliciting these emotions.9 Events that occur contrary to expectation yet align with probability or necessity are most effective in generating these feelings.25

  • 6.2 The Concept of Catharsis

The ultimate aim of tragedy, according to Aristotle, is to achieve catharsis (κάθαρσις), which is often understood as the "purgation" or "purification" of the emotions of pity and fear.3 The precise meaning of catharsis has been a subject of considerable debate among scholars, with interpretations ranging from a medical-like purgation of excessive emotions to a moral purification of the soul and an intellectual clarification of tragic truths.25 Regardless of the specific interpretation, the concept suggests that tragedy provides a release of built-up emotional energy in the audience, potentially leading to a more balanced and stable emotional state.3 Some scholars propose that catharsis involves a form of emotional learning or understanding, where the audience gains insight into the human condition through vicariously experiencing these intense emotions in the safe context of the theatre.45 Ultimately, catharsis is considered the distinctive experience or purpose of art, particularly tragedy, and is thought to have a positive social function by allowing for the safe exploration and release of powerful emotions.3

7. Conclusion

In conclusion, Aristotle's concept of Harmatia, initially understood as an error of judgment, has evolved to encompass the idea of a tragic flaw, highlighting the complex interplay between intellectual mistakes, character weaknesses, and the hero's downfall. Scholarly debate continues regarding the precise nature of Harmatia, with arguments for both error and flaw, and even a more neutral interpretation of "missing the mark." Aristotle's definition of tragedy in Poetics provides a comprehensive framework for understanding this dramatic form, emphasising the imitation of a serious and complete action, the use of embellished language, dramatic presentation, and the arousal of pity and fear leading to catharsis. The six key elements of tragedy – plot, character, thought, diction, song, and spectacle – offer a structured approach to analysing tragic drama, with plot holding paramount importance due to its unity of action, reversal, and recognition. The ideal tragic hero, of noble stature and possessing relatable imperfections, experiences a downfall brought about by Harmatia, their error or frailty. The emotional impact of tragedy, specifically the arousal of pity and fear, culminates in the enigmatic concept of catharsis, the purgation or purification of these emotions, which remains a cornerstone of Aristotle's enduring theory and continues to shape our understanding of dramatic literature across centuries.

8. References

  • Aristotle. Poetics. (Various editions and translations were consulted through the provided snippets).

  • Britannica Editors. (2016, June 6). Anagnorisis | literature. Encyclopedia Britannica.87

  • Britannica Editors. (2023, March 13). Catharsis | criticism. Encyclopedia Britannica.104

  • Britannica Editors. (2023, November 9). Tragedy | Definition, Characteristics, & Examples. Encyclopedia Britannica.74

  • Brook, A. (2017). Review of Aristotle and the Arc of Tragedy: Oedipus Rex, Othello, Death of a Salesman. Bryn Mawr Classical Review.94

  • Carnades.org. (2020, July 2). Reversal and Recognition: Two Central Elements of Aristotle's Idea of Plot [Video].73

  • Cdnsm5-ss5.sharpschool.com. (n.d.). Characteristics of the Tragic Hero [PDF].17

  • Chukwumah, I. (2019). Nso and the Displacement of Hamartia in Igbo Nigerian Tragedies. Research in African Literatures, 50(4), 60-79.113

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