Rhesus - Euripides

Ancient Troy

Mythical Back Story

The Trojans led by Hector have inflicted a huge defeat in a battle against the Greeks. Achilles son of Peleus, the Greeks' most able warrior, had not participated in this battle, in consequence the Greeks had lost it. Agammemon had started a quarrel with Achilles by ordering the abduction fro himself of Achilles' concubine, Briseis, [Book 1 and Book 9 Homer's Iliad]. She had been given to Achilles as a war prize. After this Achilles withdrew his Myrmidons from the Achaean army and refused to fight for Agamemnon following which the Greeks suffered a huge defeat.

During the battle Hector and his Trojan forces and their allies had routed the Greeks [Achaeans] right back away from walls of Troy, back across the River Scamander, across the Scamandrian Plain, all the way to behind the palisades which the Greeks had errected to protect their ships. Night had fallen and the two sides had camped within sight of each other. The play Rhesus is the re-telling by Euripides of the story of the Dolonea [Book X of Homer's Iliad].

Argument/Hypothesis

When Hector and the Trojans, as Homer telleth in the Eighth book of his Iliad, had driven the Greeks from before Troy back to their camp beside the sea, the host of Troy lay for that night in the plain overagainst them. And the Trojans sent forth Dolon a spy to know what the Greeks were minded to do. But there went forth also two spies from the camp of the Greeks, even Odysseus and Diomedes, and these met Dolon and slew him, after that he had told them in his fear all that they would know of the array of the Trojans, and of the coming of their great ally, Rhesus the Thracian, the son of a Goddess. And herein is told of the coming of the Thracian king, and of all that befell that night in the camp of the Trojans.

Dramatis Personae

HECTOR - Prince of Ilion (Troy) and General of the Trojan Armies.
AENEAS - a Trojan Prince.
DOLON - a Trojan.
PARIS - Trojan prince, also called Alexander, brother of Hector.
RHESUS - King of Thrace, son of the River Strŷmon and the Muse of the Mountains.
A THRACIAN - Rhesus' charioteer.
ODYSSEUS - a Greek chieftain, famous for craft and daring.
DIOMEDES - a Greek chieftain, famous for valour.
A SHEPHERD as Messenger.
The Goddess ATHENA.
The MUSE OF THE MOUNTAINS - Rhesus' mother.

CHORUS of Trojan Sentinels or Guards with their LEADER

Non-speaking parts

Some THRACIANS with their CAPTAIN
Attendants

Setting: The Skene is Hector's bivouac shelter set up in the temporary camp of the Trojan army on the plain before the city of Troy.

It is a cloudy but moonlight night. The Trojans and their allies have won a decisive victory and are camping on the open field close to the Greek outposts. A watch-fire burns low in front. Far off at the back can be seen rows of the watch-fires in the Greek camp. The road to Troy is in front to the left; the road to Mount Ida leads far away to the right.

Of the two eisodoi [passageways] eisodos B the one on stage right [left from the audience's point of view] leads to the camp of the Thracian troops led by Rhesus, and then onto Mount Ida and Troy itself. The other, eisodos A,  stage left [on the right side from the audience's point of view], leads to the main body of the Trojan camp, and then further onto the Greek camp and the sea where the latter's  ships are moored. Eisodos A is sometimes described in the play as the way to the city and eisodos B as the way to the countryside or port.

Summary:

Parodos [Lines 1-51]:

The Chorus of Trojan Sentinels enters.

The Chorus Leader speaks. They are looking for Hector, general of the Trojan army. The Trojan army led by Hector has just inflicted a huge defeat in a battle against the Greeks. The time is the fourth watch of the night [2am to sunrise]. The Leader of the Trojan Sentinels wants Hector to wake up as he has an important matter to report to him. Hector wakes up. Hector asks whether the person waking him is friend or foe. He demands a password from him. Hector wants to know whether or not the enemy have launched a night raid on their camp. The Leader says no. Hector asks why have they abandoned their posts. The Leader tells him that they are the sentries guarding the camp, that they have not abandoned their watch lightly, for no reason at all, but that they have a very important matter to tell him.  The Leader says Hector should wake his allied forces up who should take up their spears, and get the Phrygian archers ready. Hector asks why. The Leader explains that the forces in the Greek have lit fires and their ships can be seen clearly in the fire light, but their forces are hidden in the darkness probably gathered round their general Agamemnon's tent. They seem to be on the move, and Hector may wish to forestall whatever might happen. 

First Episode [Lines 52–223]:

Hector agrees. It seems to him that the Greek forces are about to embark on their ships to row away. He says that if the sun had not set he would have ordered his men to set fire to the Greek ships and run through their camp killing any and every Greek they encountered. He was ready to continue the fight at night but the augurers and seers had advised him to wait for dawn before making any further moves.

To check their purpose Hector is about to order a night attack on the Greek ramparts and ships, when Aeneas makes a timely entrance and persuades him to send out a spy to investigate the facts of the mystery before launching any action. Hector duly appeals for a volunteer, and Dolon, one of his hypastists [lightly armoured foot soldier equipped with an aspis (shield) and spear] offers to perform that task but wants a share of the spoils of victory namely the horses of Achilles. Hector too wants these but he agrees to Dolon's demand. Dolon exits to disguise himself for his mission. He has told the Chorus that he will set forth disguised as a wolf , with a wolfskin round his back with its head over his own. The Chorus wish him well in his mission commenting may the Hermes the lord of cheats take him safely to the Greek camp and bring him back again. Dolon says he will kill Odysseus and bring his head back to Troy. 

Exit Dolon to prepare for and go on his operation.

First Stasimon [Lines 224–63]:
The Chorus sing an ode as prayer to Apollo for Dolon's safety and success. encouraging him on his mission to go in stealth into the Greek camp. May he reach the galleys. May he succeed in his spying on the Greeks. May he return home safely. The Trojans have found a hero. What important Greeks may he encounter and kill in their tents. May he kill Menelaos and bring back the head of Agamemnon to place on the lap of Helen: may he bring back the head of the leader who had brought a thousand ships to Troy's shores.

Second Episode [Lines 264–341]: 

Enter a Shepherd (as Messenger from Rhesus) demanding an audience with Hector.

Hector is sceptical about what news of real import could possibly concern a shepherd/

The Shepherd tells Hector that Rhesus, king of Thrace, is on his way together with his men coming to give assistance of the Trojans against the Greeks. He is riding at the head of his men in a chariot drawn by white horses, bringing with him armed soldiers, mounted cavalry and archers.

Hector comments that Rhesus has only come for the victory feast. He's a bit late for the real fight, besides Hector wants the glory of victory for himself. He doesn't need any help. He will win without Rhesus' assistance.

The Leader of the Chorus comments that Hector is right.

The Shepherd comments let the enemy see him. When they do they will be afraid.

Hector relents and says let the gold armoured Rhesus come as ally.

Second Stasimon [Lines 342–380]:

This is sometimes called the Adrasteia chorus.

The Chorus sing an ode begging Adrasteia to keep their mouths shut, to keep bad luck from being spoken. King Rhesus is coming. The Chorus welcome his imminent arrival. He has been sent to help the Trojan cause. They describe Rhesus' father and mother, the river god Styrmon and the Muse. Rhesus has come with his Thracian horses to Phrygia [Troy]. They beg Rhesus to raise his shield against Achilles and to beat the Argives back. 

Third Episode [Lines 388–526]:

Enter King Rhesus with some of his following.

Hector greets him but reproaches him for not coming earlier particularly as he owed Hector the repayment of a debt for Hector having helped him to secure his own kingdom.

Rhesus explains to Hector that he has been delayed in his coming dealing with attacks upon his own kingdom by Scythians from a neighbouring land. Now that he has defeated them he has come. He boasts of the glory they will win together against the Greeks. He will only require one day to storm the palisades protecting the Greek fleet to defeat and kill them. On the day after that he will go home.

Hector tells him that it is night now, and he will show him to an area separate from the main camp of the Trojan forces when he and his army may set up their tents. There he and his men can spend the night. He tells Rhesus the password used to identify friend or foe with the sentinels on watch duty: it is "Phoebus".  

He tells the Chorus to be on the lookout for Dolon who has been sent to the Greek camp to spy on their ships.

Exit Hector, Rhesus and his attendants, and Aeneas.

Third Stasimon [Lines 527–564]:

This is known as the Stars and Nightingale chorus.

The Leader of the Chorus describes the setting of the early constellations, that the Pleiades and constellation of Aquila are soaring high in the sky. Wake up Sentinels. The Moon is shining and dawn is breaking. Can they see the star which is announcing it? 

The Chorus discuss who have done their turn at watch that night and who is next. Who is  for the fifth watch? the Lycians. The nightingale is singing. The flocks of sheep are pasturing on Mount Ida.  A shepherd's pipe can be heard.

The scout [Dolon] is missing, the one Hector sent to spy on the Greeks' ships. The Chorus fear for him. It seems he may have stumbled into an ambush and been killed.

The Leader of the chorus says it is his duty to wake the Lycians to perform the fifth watch of the night.

The Chorus exit, leaving the stage/orchestra empty.

Fourth Episode [Lines 565–674]:

Odysseus and Diomedes enter in stealth.

They think they have heard horses and that they should be careful about guards on watch. They mention that Dolon, whom they have killed, has given them the friend or foe password. It is "Phoebus". They mention that Dolon had told them that this is about where they should be able to find Hector's tent, but the tents they have come across are empty.

Diomedes says he has drawn his sword ready to kill Hector. Are they about to be ambushed? Odysseus comments that Hector is bold because he is winning. And because they can't find him they say that it is time now to return to the Greek camp where the Greek ships are moored. Can't they look for Paris and Aeneas instead? Not without deadly peril. It is not not possible to find them in the dark. Diomedes comments that it is shameful to return to the Greek without having done damage to the Trojans.

Odysseus: How can you say we have done no damage. Look! here is Dolon's armour. Did we not kill him after discovering him spying on our ships. Do you really think we can rout their whole army?

Diomedes: You are right. We should return.

The voice of the goddess Athena is heard.

She asks where do they think they are going. Even if the gods won't allow them to kill Hector or Paris, how about their ally, Rhesus, who has recently arrived in their camp?  On the morrow he will destroy the Greek fleet, and storm the Greek palisade, Nothing will stop him, not even Ajax or Achilles. They should kill him, and if they do, they will win the day. She tells them to forget about finding Hector where he is sleeping. He will be killed by another's hand.

Odysseus recognises that it is Athena who is talking. He asks her where they can find Rhesus. She tells him that he is camped nearby, separate from the main host of the Trojans, next to his chariot and white mares. They will easily see them and they shine bright at night. Kill the master and then take the horses. They are amongst the finest in the world and would make a fine prize.

Odysseus: Diomedes you must let me do the killing, whilst you see to the horses.
Diomedes: I shall do the killing, and you can take the horses. You are renowned as a quick-witted trickster. A man must be assigned those tasks which he can most help at doing.

Odysseus exits.

Athena tells Diomedes that she sees the Trojan prince Alexandros [Paris] coming; he is alone. He appears to be coming to find Hector. He wants to tell him that there are unconfirmed reports from a watchman of marauding enemy spies in their camp.  Diomedes asks Athena whether he should kill him. Athena tells Diomedes that he can only do as much as Fate has decreed, that he should concentrate on killing the man whose death is doomed.

Diomedes exits

Enter Alexandros [Paris]

He says he looking for Hector to report the news he has received about spies. Athena pretends to be the goddess, Aphrodite, Alexandros' friend, but unknowingly to Alexandros is Athena. She tells him not to worry. Hector is away showing the Thracian king, Rhesus, where he and his men can sleep. And that he, Alexandros, is safe.

Alexandros says that Athena has convinced him. He is free and can go back to his guard duty.

Athena [ironically] says she is concerned with everything about Alexandros and that she wants to see her friends triumphant. She tells him to be off and that she will be "concerned" about him.

Exit Alexandros

Athena warns Odysseus and Diomedes that the Greeks are onto them, and that now they have killed Rhesus, they should make their way back to the Greek lines by their ship's slipways as fast as possible.

Epiparodos (Reappearance of the Chorus after leaving the scene) [Lines 675–727]:

Enter Odysseus chased by the Chorus of Trojan Sentinels

The Chorus is shouting out there are marauders in the camp. They demand to know which company Odysseus belongs to and which country he is from. Odysseus says he can't tell them that. The Chorus says they will kill him and demand from him the friend or foe password. Odysseus answers it is "Phoebus".  The Chorus says he is correct and hold their spears back. They ask him has he seen the marauders and which way they went.  He directs them in the opposite direction to which he wants to go.

Odysseus: They went this way!

Exit Odysseus [slipping away].

The Chorus asks should they raise the alarm. Who was the man they have just seen? Where was he from? Thessaly? Locria? Was it Odysseus? He definitely was a brave man. Others answer saying do not praise a robber who uses trickery. Whoever it was Hector will blame us guards for those who crept into the Trojan camp during the night.

Exodos [Lines 728–996]:

Rhesus' Charioteer is groaning off stage. He has been stabbed with a sword.
The Chorus want to know who it is.

Enter the Charioteer covered in blood. 

He reports that king Rhesus has been slain. He wants to know where Hector is to report what has happened. The Thracian army, allies of the Trojans, has been massacred during the night. They have been killed treacherously. After Hector had shown where they could sleep, they were tired after their long march. They failed to post sentries. They didn't hang out their amour ready for battle. Nor yoke the horses ready to use them. All they did was simply fling themselves down on the ground to sleep. Then two men came marauding. He saw them and shouted at them. but they went off. He went to sleep again and had a dream about two wolves which had climbed onto the backs of Rhesus' horses.  In his dream he tried to protect the horses from the wolves, but the nightmare awoke him. He could hear the groans of dying men. Then a jet of hot blood from his master struck him. He had been slaughtered. The Charioteer jumped up at this. But he had no spear in hand to defend himself. There stood beside him a sturdy fellow who struck him in the side with his sword: the wound went deep. The two marauders then took off with the horses and chariot. He said he was not able to stand upright anymore. Nor could he say who had killed them and how. He guesses that it was their friends.

The Chorus says it was their enemy, the Greeks who had done all this. Hector has been told of what has happened.

Enter Hector

Hector starts to censure the Chorus for their failure properly to guard the Trojan camp. He says they are totally responsible for what has happened. Why didn't they attack the Greeks on their way into the camp, and/or when leaving it? 

Hector [to the Leader]: Mark my words. There's flogging and/or beheading awaiting you as punishment

The Charioteer then accuses Hector of wanting to steal Rhesus' horses, and has assassinated him.

The Charioteer asks Hector why is he threatening the sentinels. And why is he undermining what he says: he too is a barbarian the same as he and can see things as he does. Hector arranged his master's assassination. Hector is guilty. He will need to make a long and cunning speech to convince him otherwise. Of course Hector coveted Rhesus' horses: he constantly urged Rhesus to come. He came and now he and his men are dead. Hector has killed them. Hector has seriously violated the ancient rules of hospitality, guest-friendship in which the host promises safety, far more so than Paris did when he abducted Helen. Paris' act seems far less shameful. No, don't tell him that it was the Argives. How could they get past the sentinels without being noticed? If it was them how come no one else got killed? The Charioteer refused to blame the Achaeans. How could they find their way in the darkness to where Rhesus and his men were camped? They didn't even know if they were coming unless one of the gods had informed on them. No, this was plot.

Hector replies. He denies having done this. Other allies have no such harsh words for the Trojans; that he would never kill a friend for his horses. This is Odysseus' handiwork. Who else could have  plotted such a deed? And has he also killed Dolon, the Trojan's spy? He has been gone a long time and not returned.

The Charioteer says he knows nothing of these Odysseuses that Hector is talking of, that his wounds were not made by any enemy. What refuge could he find now that his master is dead? 

Hector replies he would find welcome in his house, where his wounds would be healed. He orders some men to pick the Charioteer up and to carry him to his home. He also orders burial of all the dead along the public road to Troy.

The Charioteer is carried off.

The Chorus ask is there some god who is leading Troy back to sorrow.

The Chorus start to lead off down eisodos B, but are checked by the entrance of the Muse of the Mountains Deus ex Machina above the Skene. She is carrying the body of her dead son, Rhesus, in her arms.

The Chorus Leader asks who has appeared, what goddess?

The Muse answers Trojans be not afraid. She declares herself to be one of the Sisters [Muses]. She came because she saw the Greeks slay her son, and says that Odysseus will one day be suitably punished.

The Muse sings a lament grieving for her son. The road to Troy had brought him bad luck. The Leader of the Chorus shares her grief.

The Muse curses Diomedes and Odysseus, who have made her childless, and curses Helen who left her home in Greece to lie in a Trojan bed; she destroyed her son. May they all perish.

She regrets the time when Thamyris boast he could outsing the Muses in a contest. He lost the contest and was punished for daring to challenge them. His challenge had caused her to wade across the Styrmon and found herself in the river god's bed, after which she gave birth to Rhesus. Thamyris was blinded as punishment.

After his birth she cast the boy into the river. The nymphs of the spring had brought him up and subsequently he became king of the Thracians. He was warned by his mother never to go to Troy as she knew his fate, but he did after Hector had persuaded him. 

The Muse then accused Athena of being the cause of the whole disaster. It was her doing, not Odysseus' nor Diomedes'. She murdered Rhesus. She declares that she and her sister Muses honour Athens. She wants Musaeus, the pupil of Orpheus, to sing the dirge for her son, and no other. 

The Chorus Leader aks Hector to drop the charges he has made against them about their plotting the death of Rhesus.

Hector declares that he was killed by the wiles of Odysseus. And said that when saw the Greeks encamped against his land he summoned help from his neighbours especially Rhesus who owed him a personal debt. Rhesus had come to help Troy but was killed. Taking no pleasure in his death he says he is prepared to bury him, for he came in friendship but has left in disaster. Hector mourns him.

The Muse answers Hector that she doesn't want her son buried. She will ask Persephone to send his soul back up again. He will never see his mother again, but will lie in a cave as a man-god, spokesman of Bacchus. She will grieve with Thetis, mother of Achilles, for her son will die too. O are the disasters mortals face having children. It is better to be childless. One only begets them only to bury them!

The Muse disappears

Chorus Leader: It is a mother's duty to mourn for her dead child. It is now dawn. Hector, your work lies before you. What will you have us do?

Hector: Tell the allies to arm and make ready, to yoke horses to their chariots and await the sound of the trumpet. I am confident we can overrun the Greeks' camp, storm their palisade and set fire to their ships. Today Troy will be liberated.

Chorus Leader: Listen to our general. March in good order. May the god who is on our side give us victory.

Exeunt

References

Rhesus (play) - Wikipedia

Rhesus of Thrace - Wikipedia

Rhesus - GreekMythology.com

Doloneia — Brill

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Rhesus 2 - Greek Mythology Link

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Hector - GreekMythology.com

Aeneas - GreekMythology.com

Aeneas - Wikipedia

Achilles - Wikipedia

Briseis - Wikipedia

Odysseus - GreekMythology.com

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Ancient Greek Versions

Teubner - Euripides - Rhesus

Euripides (1872). Euripides: with an English commentary Volume 1. Whittaker. (F.A. Paley)

W. H. Porter, ed. (1916). The RHESUS OF EURIPIDES. CUP Archive
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Translations

Euripides IV : Euripides  Rhesus - Internet Archive - University of Chicago Press

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The Rhesus (1913 edition) | Open Library (Gilbert Murray)

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Rhesus (Euripides) - Wikisource,

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Euripides: Volume 1 Rhesus p.153 trans by Arthur Way - Loeb edition

Tragedies of Euripides (Way)/Rhesus - Wikisource

Euripides Plays (Rhesus). With introd. by Henry Morley

Rhesos - Translated by Richard Emil Braun Oxford University Press

Euripides, (12 June 2008). Bacchae and Other Plays. (James Morwood) Rhesus p.133: OUP Oxford. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-19-954052-5.  

Iphigenia among the Taurians ; Bacchae ; Iphigenia at Aulis ; Rhesus : Euripides p.133 - Internet Archive http://bit.ly/3iQLLvv  tr. James Morwood  - Oxford World Classics

Audio/Visual

Rhesus, Euripides - YouTube - Center for Hellenic Studies

Hour 25: Rhesus by Euripides - YouTube

Iphigenia at Aulis - Euripides

Iphigenia in Aulis or Iphigenia at Aulis (Ἰφιγένεια ἐν Αὐλίδι or Iphigenia Aulidensis) was written between 408 BC and 406 BC, and first produced a year later in 405 BC, posthumously by Euripides' younger son, as he himself had died a year earlier. Some scholars note later additions and amendments to the text of the play which has come down to us, text by other hands than his.

Argument/Hypothesis

When the hosts of Hellas were mustered at Aulis beside the narrow sea, with purpose to sail against Troy, they were hindered from departing thence by the wrath of Artemis, who suffered no favouring wind to blow. Then, when they enquired concerning this, Calchas the prophet proclaimed that the anger of the goddess would not be appeased save by the sacrifice of Iphigeneia, eldest daughter of Agamemnon, captain of the host. Now she abode yet with her mother in Mycenae; but the king wrote a lying letter to her mother, bidding her send their daughter to Aulis, there to be wedded to Achilles. All this did Odysseus devise, but Achilles knew nothing thereof. When the time drew near that she should come, Agamemnon repented him sorely. And herein is told how lie sought to undo the evil, and of the maiden's coming, and how Achilles essayed to save her, and how she willingly offered herself for Hellas' sake, and of the marvel that befell at the sacrifice.

Alternative Hypothesis

When the Greeks were detained at Aulis by stress of weather, Calchas declared that they would never reach Troy unless the daughter of Agamemnon, Iphigenia, was sacrificed to Artemis. Agamemnon sent for his daughter with this view, but repenting, he dispatched a messenger to prevent Clytæmnestra sending her. The messenger being intercepted by Menelaos, an altercation between the brother chieftains arose, during which Iphigenia, who had been tempted with the expectation of being wedded to Achilles, arrived with her mother. The latter, meeting with Achilles, discovered the deception, and Achilles swore to protect her. But Iphigenia, having determined to die nobly on behalf of the Greeks, was snatched away by the Goddess, and a stag substituted in her place. The Greeks were then enabled to set sail.

Dramatis Personae

Agamemnon – king of Mycenae [Argos], supreme commander of the Achaean [Greek] forces, husband of Clytemnestra, father of Iphigenia and Orestes, brother of Menelaus
Old Man – loyal slave of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon
Menelaos – king of Sparta , husband of Helen , brother of Agamemnon
Messenger 1 – attendant of Clytemnestra
Clytemnestra – daughter of Tyndareus, wife of Agamemnon
Iphigenia – teenage daughter of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon
Achilles – warrior hero, son of Thetis [a sea goddess] and Peleus, king of Phthia
Messenger 2
Chorus of Young Married Women from Chalcis, a city in Euboea just across the sea from Aulis. They have to sightsee of the vast Achaean [Greek] army and fleet that has mustered there at Aulis prior to its setting sail for  the war on Troy.

Non-Speaking Parts

Clytemnestra's entourage
Orestes - the infant son of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon [a doll]
Achilles’ attendants and soldiers [Myrmidons]

Possible Distribution of Parts

Protagonist: Agamemnon and Achilles
Deuteragonist: Menelaus and Clytemnestra
Tritagonist: Old Man and Iphigenia

Setting: The camp of the Greek Army on the sea coast at Aulis. The Skene is Agamemnon's tent.

Summary:

Prologue [Lines 1-163]

Enter Agamemnon with letter writing tablets and an Old Man, faithful slave of Agamemnon. They chant their lines till Line 48.

Agamemnon is commander of the Greek forces, who have mustered at Aulis to sail against Troy.  The Old Man is Agamemnon's and Clytemnestra's slave. Agamemnon tells the Old Man to come to him, but the Old Man is slow because of his age. There is a bright star in the sky near the Pleiades: Sirius, blazing bright but scarcely moving, no birds chirp and the winds have dropped, the sea is calm and silence prevails in the strait of  Euripus. The ships are becalmed and cannot set sail for Troy [apoleia]. Agamemnon is pacing up and down agitated outside his tent. He is envious of the slave's life because he is free from danger, and lives in obscurity expecting no glory. Those in high renown have more worries. The Old Man says that those in high office have success.

Agamemnon explains that that success and high office is not everything that it is made out to be. True there is some sweetness in having high rank, but it brings pain to those who achieve it.  This is the will of the gods.

The Old Man says that he does not admire leaders who think like this. Agamemnon must face adversity: what the gods will, will be. He directs our attention to the fact that Agamemnon is trying to compose a letter on a tablet, but is constantly erasing what he has written, and throwing the tablets down on the ground, breaking them. Agamemnon should discuss his problem with him, Tyndareus [Clytmenestra's father] had sent him as a loyal and trustworthy servant as part of Clytemnestra's bridal dowry, a long time ago.

Agamemnon relates the following background story: Leda had three daughters, including Helen and Clytemnestra. Helen was wooed by the best young men of Greece. So many came, but so much jealousy arose amongst them, with terrible threats, so much so that should any of them fail to win her hand, that Tyndareus, her father, decided to force each of the suitors to swear an oath to the effect that whoever won Helen as his wife, should she run away from that marriage with another, all of the rest of them would band together in an expedition, and by force of arms overthrow whether Greek or Barbarian, whoever had abducted her. She chose Menelaos for husband. He was Agamemnon's brother.  Then Paris came from Troy to Sparta immediately afterwards, after he had made his famous Judgement of the three goddesses. There he fell in love with Helen and she with him. He took her off with him back to Troy. Then Menelaos invoked the promise that all of Helen's suitors had made on oath to Tyndareus. A call to war was made. The armed forces of the Hellenes (ships, shields, horses, chariots) had all gathered here at Aulis. Agamemnon was made commander-in-chief. ever since Agamemnon has cursed the day when he received this appointment. 

The host of the Hellenes has found itself becalmed at Aulis. No winds blow: no ships can set sail. Calchas, the seer, has said that a sacrifice must be made to Artemis: Agamemnon must offer up his eldest daughter, Iphigenia, as a human sacrifice to the goddess. If Agamemnon does this Calchas has said that the winds will blow again.

Agamemnon then ordered Talythibius, his herald,  to dismiss the army, for he could never consent to give up his daughter. Then Menelaos forced Agamenon to rescind this decree and made him agree to the sacrifice of Iphigenia. A plan was devised. A letter full of lies was sent to Clytemnestra telling her to bring Iphigenia to Aulis, where she would be married to Achilles; that if she didn't Achilles would refuse to go to Troy with the Greek army and return to his homeland at Phthia. 

Agamemnon says that no one else knows about this plan except Calchas, Odysseus and Menelaos, all of whom have all been told.  And now he says he has changed his mind once more. Then facing the audience and the Old Man he tells them that what they have observed him doing is removing the seal from a new letter and then re-sealing it, over and over, again. Finally he tells the Old Man to take this new letter back to Argos, and to give it to Clytemnestra. The new letter tells Clytemnestra says not now to bring Iphigenia to Aulis, but that her marriage to Achilles must await for another season. 

Old Man: But Achilles may blow up in a huge rage because of this.

Agamemnon: Achilles is only lending his name to this scheme. He knows not what our real intention is.

Old Man: It is wrong of you, Agamenon, to offer your daughter to be the wife of this son of a goddess, and then only to bring her here to offer her up to another goddess in blood sacrifice for the Greeks.

Agamemnon: I know I am out of my mind, but hurry, Old Man, to Argos as fast as you can. Do not fall asleep by the wayside. If you do meet them coming on their way here, turn them around, sending them back to Argos. 

Old Man: How will I prove my mission comes from you?

Agamemnon: Take this, my seal, with you.

Exit Old Man, setting off on his journey.

Agamemnon: No mortal man can ever hold onto success and luck for his whole life. If you have been born then so you shall suffer.

Exit Agamemnon 

Parodos [Lines 164-302]

Enter the Chorus of Women from Chalcis

They chant an ode saying that they have crossed over the Straits of Euripus from Euboeia. They have come to see the huge army of the Achaeans led by Agamemnon and his brtoher Menelaos, and the thousand ships that have all gathered here at Aulis and which are about to set sail for Troy to bring back Helen. Paris of Troy had stolen her away from Sparta she who had been given to him by Aphrodite after having the judged her best in beauty against the jealous goddesses Athena and Hera. 

The Chorus say they have climbed up, passing by a temple dedicated to Artemis, which overlooked the army of the Achaeans in the plain below. They list all the famous heroes they have seen there, including Ajax and Achilles, and their men, their tents, horses and arms. 

Then they have counted and listed the commanders of the ships of the assembled armada, including the fifty ships of the Myrmidons from Phthia, Achilles' men; then the equal number of ships from the Argive, and the sixty ships from Attica; and the fifty ships of the Boeotians; and ships from Phocis, and an equal number from Locris; and the hundred ships from Mycenae; and more from Pylos and a dozen from Ainia, and ships from Elis and Taphia; Ajax has brought with him a dozen ships from Salamis. So powerful is the fleet which has been assembled here that no Asian [Trojan] fleet could ever hope or expect to win against them.     

1st Episode [Lines 303-542]

Enter Menelaos holding the letter Agamenon has sent to Clytemnestra and the Old Man whom he has detained. They are standing outside of Agamemnon's tent. The Old Man says Menelaos has seized the letter from him and is to give it back. Menelaos had no right to take it from him. Menelaos says that the Old Man is merely a slave and that he had no business carrying such a letter whose content affects the whole of the Greek army. The Old Man says he will leave judgement of that to others. Menelaos refuses to give it back, telling the Old Man that he will bash his brains out with his mace. The Old Man says that would be a glorious death for his master.

Enter Agamemnon

The Old Man tells him: Look how Menelaos has taken this letter from me by force and is refusing to give it back. Menelaos says that he has a far greater right to be heard than the Old Man.

Exit Old Man

Agamemnon tells Menelaos to give back his letter to him. Menelaos tells him that he will not till he has shown it to the rest of the army. 

Agamemnon: You broke the seal, so you now know what you had no right to know.
Menelaos: Yes, and now you will suffer for the evil which you secretly plotted.
Agamemnon: Where did you find it? Have you no shame?
Menelaos: I was watching out for the arrival of your daughter.
Agamemnon: Why are you spying on my affairs?
Menelaos: My own reasons. I am not one of your slaves.
Agamemnon: What? you won't let me rule in my own house!
Menelaos: No! Your mind is shifty: one thing yesterday, another different one today.
Agamemnon: Your smooth tongue frames wickedness neatly.
Menelaos: A disloyal heart is false to friends. I need to question you now. Do not turn your head away.

Menelaos explains how Agamemnon had been eager to lead the Greek army, appearing to be unambitious but in reality intent on commanding it. How he had been willing to listen to everyone no matter how lowly and allowing such persons to greet him personally by name. How he had used these tricks to gain advancement. Now that he has power he has turned his heart inside out; that he no longer loved his friends of yesterday: a good man holds on firmly to old friends. When he had come to Aulis with the army and fleet he became as nothing, confounded by a god-imposed fate, lacking favourable winds. The Danaans [The Greek forces] had urged him to abandon the cause, sending them and all the ships home. How bewildered he had looked when he heard this, when he realised he would never have the glory of captaining the thousand ships, nor of capturing Troy. And how Agamemnon had summoned Menelaos to the council of war, asking him what he could do to preserve his power and prevent fate from stripping him of his command. 

Menelaos told him that Calchas, the prophet had said he must make a human sacrifice of his own daughter to the goddess, Artemis; that he had promised to slay his child on her altar; that he was eager to get this done; that he had sent a message to his wife to bring her here to Aulis on the pretence of being married to Achilles. But how he had now been found out changing his mind in secret. The heavens have heard that he would slay his daughter, but now they have also heard that he won't. Thousands struggle to gain power, but then fall away into ignominy.

Menelaos: O Greece, what sorrow I feel for you. Ready to perform a noble deed, she'll let  the barbarians slip away, all because of you and your daughter. In an army, like in politics, noble blood doesn't make a leader. Any man with some sense can lead a city. The chieftain of an army must have a mind.

Chorus: When brothers quarrel it is terrible to watch the battle of their angry words.

Agamemnon: I will be sharp but also not so sharp with you, Menelaos. Such is noble. What I say to you is as a brother. Who has wronged you? what are you lusting for? a virtuous wife? You managed the one you had foolishly. Was that my fault? Must I pay the price for your misfortune? You're the one who's mad. You lost a bad wife, but then you threw the good fortune that the gods gave you all away when you wanted her back. And all the suitors who wanted to marry her who now obliged to fulfill the oath which Tyndareos had made them agree to. Take them! they're willing to fight your war. Go fight it with them. But as for me I will not kill my child: but your fortunes will not prosper by your vengeance on a worthless bed-partner whilst I suffer nights and days in tears having committed an unjust deed against a daughter of my own flesh and blood. If you don't wish to be sensible, I will spend the time putting my own affairs in order.

Chorus: This differs from what you said before, but it is good to hear you say you will spare your child.

Menelaos tells us that he is without friends. Agamemnon says he does if he stops trying to ruin their lives. He says he will be a true brother if he deals fairly with him and drop his malice. Menelaos accuses Agamemnon of not wanting to help his country in her need. Agamemnon then says that some god has struck both the country and Menelaos with lunacy.

Menelaos: Well then, betray you brother, and boast of your generalship. I have other friends. I will go to them. And I have other resources.

Enter a Messenger.

The Messenger tells Agamemnon that he has come with Clytemnestra who has brought his daughter, Iphigenia, and their baby son, Orestes, with her. He has rushed on ahead, leaving the ladies to bathe their feet in a cool fountain after their long journey. The horses have also been turned loose to feed in a meadow. The news of their arrival has spread amongst the whole army; thousands have rushed in curiosity to see them. The soldiers are asking questions: 'Does this mean a marriage?  Is the king missing his daughter?' and some of them are also asking:  'Is there's going to be a marriage-sacrifice to Artemis, the godess who rules here at Aulis. And who is the bridegroom?' He has rushed on ahead to suggest making ready for the rites and sacrifices to Artemis, for the morrow at dawn will bring Iphigenia a day of blessing.

Agamemnon thanks the Messenger and tells him to go indoors.

Exit Messenger

Agamemnon bemoans the fate that has befallen him. How can he now dare to face Iphigenia? Some divine power has tricked him. An ordinary man might weep and tell his sorrows to the world. But what for a king? He must maintain his dignity. How can he now receive his wife? She must come to the wedding to fulfill her loving part. As for the maid Death will soon lie with her. 

Agamemnon: I hear her begging "Father, why do you kill me? Is this my marriage? May you too have such a marriage, and all your friends as well! And baby Orestes, he will cry out meaningless words, but they will have clear meaning to me in my heart. O Paris, your love for Helen has destroyed my life! " 

Chorus: As women from another city we too share your grief.

Agamemnon bemoans that he has lost. Menelaos has heard what Agamemnon has said. When he saw tears come to Agamemnon's eyes, he had a change of heart.

Menelaos: Brother, do not kill your child.  My heart melts when I see your tears. Why should she die when Helen lives? That is not just or fair. What do I desire? I can always find another wife. Do I cast my brother aside just to possess Helen? I share kinship with Iphigenia. We are of the same blood, yet she is facing Death on the altar for the sake of my wife. Pity for the girl has swept over me for she would be killed on account of my marriage. What has Helen to do with this girl of yours? Disband the army. Let it leave Aulis. Stop your tears.  The dire oracles concerning your daughter’s destiny, I want no part in them, after all we are brothers.

Agamemnon welcomes Menelaos' change of heart, saying he hates how brothers fall out over a woman or greed for an inheritance or a throne. And then he announces the following.

Agamemenon: But we have arrived at a fatal place. A compulsion absolute forces the slaughter of my child.

Menelaos asks why he has changed his mind. Agamemnon tells him that it is the assembled army which forces his hand. Menelaos tells him not to be afraid of the rabble and comments that Iphigenia could be slipped away back to Argos in secret. Agamemnon tells him that Calchas will publish the oracle to the army. Menelaos says that the seer can easily be done away with before he does that.

Agamemnon: The whole race of prophets are a damnable evil.
Menelaos: They are no good, good for nothing whilst they live.

Agamemnon says that there is another problem. Odysseus knows of the plan to sacrifice Iphigenia. And he loves popularity and is ambitious which makes him dangerous. He will stand up before the army and announce what Calchas' oracles had said and how he, Agamemnon, had promised to make this sacrifice to Artemis. Odysseus will whip up rage amongst the men and urge the sacrifice of Iphigenia. He will arouse and seize the soul of the whole army, who will come to kill Menelaos and himself. And even if he managed to escape home back to Argos they would follow him there and destroy the land. 

Agamemnon: Such is the terrible circumstance in which I find myself. I am quite helpless: it's the will of the gods. Menelaus, go through the army and take all care that Clytemnestra learns nothing of this until after I have seized my child and sent her to her death, so that I may do this evil with the least tears.

Agamemnon orders the Chorus to keep his secret.

Exit Agamemnon into his tent, and Menelaus to one side.

1st Stasimon [Lines 543-606]

The Chorus chant an ode about the benefits of marriage and the risks of love. It is Aphrodite who grants the gift of marriage, which is generally free from the frenzy of passion. However, at the same time, Eros lets loose two arrows: one of which is aimed at happiness, the other at confusion in life. The chorus themselves want to have their share of love, but also want to stand clear from the excesses that lie therein. Men are all different, but their true virtue lies in being able to discern what is best, being able to make a right judgment. From all of this springs honour. When the leader of a city does this, this adds to that city's greatness.

The ode also makes mention of how Paris had been a herdsman at Troy, playing melodies on his shepherd's pipe, and how the goddesses had summoned him to judge their beauty. That trial subsequently sent him forth to Greece to stand before an ivory throne and look into Helen's eyes where he had exchanged the ectasy of love with her. This was the origin of the quarrel between the Greeks and Trojans and led to the assault with ship and spear by the Greeks on Troy.

Enter Clytemnestra, Iphigenia, and the baby Orestes from one side in a carriage.

The Chorus cry hail to Iphigenia and Clytemnestra, welcoming them to Aulis. The Chorus does not reveal that they know what is going to happen to Iphigenia. They do not even suggest the worst of it.

2nd Episode [Lines 607-750]

Agamemnon comes out of his tent. 

Clytemnestra hopes that Agamemnon has arranged a noble and happy marriage for their daughter She asks some of the Chorus to help them step down out of their carriage. She has brought with her Iphigenia's dowry and marriage gifts with her in the carriage. She asks her attendants to carry it into Agamemnon's tent. They do. Iphigenia asks to be allowed to rush up to be able to hug her father. Clytemnestra tells her daughter that of all the children she has borne Iphigenia loves Agamenon the most.   He speaks to baby Orestes, saying "This is your sister's wedding day." She asks the Chorus to take care of the baby Orestes. They do.

Iphigenia [to Agamemnon] Father, it is a good and wonderful thing you have done, bringing me here!

Agamemnon: I do not know how to answer what you say, my child. 
Iphigenia: Oh? Before you were glad to see me, but now your eyes have no quiet in them.

Agamemnon: I have the many cares of a general and a king.

Iphigenia: Oh, turn away from all of them, my father — be here and mine only, now! 

Agamemnon: I am. Now I am nowhere but in this place, and with you utterly, my darling. 

Iphigenia: Oh then, unknit your brow, and smooth your face for love. 

Agamemnon: Now see, my joy at seeing you — what joy it is. 

Iphigenia: But tears—a libation of tears—are there ready to pour from your eyes. 

Agamemnon: Well, there is a long parting about to come for both of us. 

Iphigenia: I don’t understand, dear Father. I don’t understand.

Agamemnon: And yet you do seem to speak with understanding, and I am the more grieved. Iphigenia: I’ll speak foolishly if that will please you more. 

Agamemnon: O, please do!

Agamemnon says he can't stay home with his children, even if he wanted to he couldn't. Iphigenia complains: "Would that Menelaos' wrongs and his spearmen just simply disappear." Agamemnon says that Menelaos' wrongs have already ruined him, and they will destroy others. He tells his daughter that he has to go on a long journey with the fleet to Troy to the home of Paris and king Priam. He hints to her she too will be going on a long journey. She will going alone without her mother to a land where she must remember him. Iphigenia tells he father to come back to her from Troy as soon as his business is done. But Agamemnon says he must first make a sacrifice and perform some rites here in Aulis. She asks "what rites?" Agamemon tells her she will see when she will be standing right by the basin of holy water. Iphigenia tells him that she will begin the ceremony by dancing round the altar, Agamemnon tells her to go quickly into the tent for tears are about to well up in his eyes.

Exit Iphigenia into the tent.

Agamemnon [to Clytemnestra]: I am concerned about giving in marriage our daughter to Achilles! Such partings bring happiness, but the father must now give away his daughter to another home. 

Clytemnestra says she's heard of Achilles, but wants to know more about his family. Agamemnon says he is a descendant of Zeus. He then describes his family tree and that he is from Phthia. "When is is the wedding day?" Agamemnon tells her "At the next full moon". 

Clytemnestra: Have you perfomed the preliminary rites to the goddess?
Agamemnon: I am about to. That's what keeps us here.
Clytemnestra: And the wedding feast?
Agamemnon: After I have made the first sacrifices to the gods.
Clytemenestra: And the women's feast, where will that be held?
Agamemnon: Here, by the ships from Argos.
Clytemnestra: I hope all goes well. What must I do?
Agamemnon. You must obey me.
Clytemnestra: I always do.
Agamemnon: I will look after the wedding here, where the bridegroom is. You must return home to Argos to look after our other little daughters.
Clytemnestra: Who will raise the torch?
Agamemnon: I will attend to that tradition.
Clytemnestra: That doesn't seem right. Matters such as this are important.
Agamemnon: It is not safe for you to remain in a crowded camp.
Clytemnestra: It is right for a mother to give away her daughter,
Agamemnon: And the little girls ought not to be left alone at home.
Clytemnestra: The home is well guarded. They are perfectly safe.
Agamemnon: You must obey me!
Clytemnestra: No! By Hera, I rule the household. You manage war and politics.

Exit Clytemnestra into the tent.

Agamemnon says he has now made a complete mess of things. He wants his wife out of the way. He tells lies to his daughter and concocts plots. He says he has to consult Calchas what he must do to appease the goddess Artemis, and not bring disaster down upon Greece. A man must have wife who obeys him and knows her duty, or have rid of her.

Exit Agamemnon to the side.

2nd Stasimon [Lines 751-800]

The Chorus chant that soon the Greek forces will set sail for Troy, where Cassandra will fling her hair wildly as Apollo breathes into the power of prophecy.

The Trojans will stand on the battlements and towers of their city when the Greeks arrive with their forces. When Ares comes desiring to seize Helen from Priam's palace to bring her back to Greece by toil of battle.

Ares will besiege Pergamon, Phrygia's town, and in bloody battle will drag headless bodies away. Helen will soon learn what it is to abandon a husband. The wives of Lydia and Phrygia will see what fate awaits them, who will drag them away from their looms by their hair too as their homes burn around them, all because of Helen, daughter of Leda and Zeus, (if the tale can be trusted, or is it just an imagined myth?)

3rd Episode [Lines 801-1035]

Enter Achilles

He is looking for Agamemnon, the commander in chief. His men, the Myrmidons, are getting restless, nagging at him all the time. He wants to know how much longer it will be before the army sets sail for Troy. There's something supernatural in the manner how men joined this expedition.

Enter Clytemnestra

Clytemnestra welcomes Achilles and tells him who she is, and that it is appropriate he should come and hold her hand as he is about to be married to Agamemnon's and her daughter. Achilles knows nothing of this. He has never sought the hand of their daughter, nor has anyone told him about this. Both Clytemnestra and Achilles are surprised by what they have told each other. Clytemnestra says she has been deceived by a fictional wedding. Achilles says someone is laughing at them both.

He makes to enter Agamemnon's tent.The Old Man comes out and blocks his way.

The Old Man recognises who Achilles is and says he is the faithful slave of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon. He has something to say to them both, to Achilles and Clytemnestra, and that it is urgent; that Agamemnon plans to kill Iphigenia; that he will cut her throat with his sword.  Clytemnestra says she thinks the slave is mad. Why does Agamemnon want to do this? The Old Man says that Calchas has declared this to be some god's will if the Greeks are to sail for Troy, to fetch Menelaos' wife, Helen, back:  Agamemnon has to sacrifice his daughter to Artemis. He invented the marriage to Achilles as a pretext of bringing her to Aulis. The sacrifice of Iphigenia is the price of getting Helen back from Troy for Menelaos.

Clytemnestra bursts into tears. She asks the Old Man how does he know all this. The Old Man tells her that he was bringing a second letter from Agamemnon to her cancelling his first command to bring Iphigenia to Aulis, but Menelaos had seized it from him. Clytemenstra then turns to Achilles to ask him did he hear all this. Yes he has, and he can't ignore the deceit and insult that Agamemnon has played on him. This is an outrage to both of them. Clytemnestra falls on her knees begging Achilles to rescue her and Iphigenia.

Achilles agrees to help her. Normally he would obey the orders of the generals of the army, but not in this instance, because what Agamemnon proposes to do is evil and that he intends to show that he is a free man both here and at Troy. He will protect Clytemnestra, and as Iphigenia is "betrothed" to him so he will protect her from her father's knife. If anyone tries to rob him of her daughter before he goes to Troy he will stain his sword with their blood. If he does not do this the whole camp will call him a coward. He swears that Agamemnon will not lay a finger on her dress. Calchas, too, will be sorry if he is present with his barley meal and holy water at the sacrifice. Such men utter lies and will vanish in smoke. He will do all this and Iphigenia does not have to marry him, adding that he is pursued  all the time by women. 

King Agamemnon has insulted him, by his not asking for his consent to the plan he has treated him with contempt. This is unforgivable.

Clytemnestra asks whether Achilles would like her daughter to come out and clasp his knees in supplication. Achilles says that she does not have to, that the enterprise is his to rid them of these evils. He swears may he die if he does not save the girl's life. Achilles tells Clytemnestra that he will first try to persuade Agamemnon to act in a more sane manner. Clytemnestra praises Achilles for his unfailing friendship.

Clytemnestra tells Achilles that at heart Agamemnon is a coward. He is afraid of the power of the army. Achilles says that powerful arguments will defeat his. Clytemnestra asks what can she do? Achilles says she must kneel in supplication before him begging him not to kill his child. If he resists this she must come to Achilles.  If she succeeds in changing his mind, Achilles need not be involved and the army won't accuse him; he will have won the argument by reason and not force. Everything will turn out well for both Clytemnestra and Iphigenia,

If Clytemnestra should fail Achilles says he will be on the watch for her in the right place. She is not to rush through the soldiers' camp as that might bring disgrace down upon the family. Agamemnon is highly thought of throughout Greece.

Achilles exits to the side.

Clytemnestra declares him to be an upright man.

Exit Clytemnestra into Agamemnon's tent.

3rd Stasimon [Lines 1036-1097]

The Chorus sing a joyful ode about the wedding-chorus which led the feasting and dancing at the marriage of Peleus to Thetis [Achilles' father and mother]. How the wine flowed at their celebration together with the dancing of the fifty daughters of Nereus [Thetis' sisters] honouring the marriage rites.

How the Centaurs came riding in announcing that Thetis will bear a son [Achilles], the glory of all Thessaly: Cheiron has prophesied this, one skilled in Apollo's arts. They predict that he, the son, will lead the Myrmidons to destroy the city of Priam [Troy]. Achilles will be clad in the golden armour that Hephaetus wrought. O happy and glorious day.

But Iphigenia's wedding day will be different. A garland will be placed on her head by the soldiers from Argos, the same that would be put on the head of a heifer which had been dragged for sacrifice on an altar. In this case there will be no heifer, only a girl raised to be the bride to an Argive prince. Where is the goodness and virtue in this? Ruthless disregard holds power. Men forget they are mortal. Goodness is trodden down. Lawlessness overrules the law. The terror of the gods no longer unites mankind when this is the reward of wickedness.

Exodos [Lines 1098 - 1531]

Enter Clytemnestra

Clytemnestra complains Agamemnon has been a long time absent from his tent. Iphigenia is in tears having heard what her father has plotted for her, sacrifice of her life.

Clytemnestra: Why look! here comes that wicked monster, Agamemnon.

Agamemnon: I have things to say while Iphigenia is indoors, things which a young bride ought not to hear. The girl must come with me so send her out. Everything is ready: lustral waters for purification, barley to sprinkle on the sacrificial fire. And heifers are ready to fall before the marriage rites, yielding up their blood, soon to flow for Artemis.

Clytemnestra: These things sound fair to me, but as for your real intention, such words seem to say nothing good about that.

Clytemnestra: Come out here now, Iphigenia. You know everything, your father's plotting. Bring Orestes with you wrapped in your gown. 

Iphigenia steps out of Agamemnon's tent carrying the baby Orestes [a doll].

[To Agamemnon] See, she obeys you. Now I will speak for both of us.

Agamemenon: Why are you crying?

Clytemnestra: Of all my wrongs where shall I begin?

Agamemnon: You both seem to match each other's anger and tears with wild looks.

Clytemnestra: I will ask you one question. Do you intend to kill your daughter who stands here?

Agamemnon: To do what? This is a dreadful thing to say.

Clytemnestra: Answer no other question. Give me no other answer.

Agamemnon: O divine Destiny, Chance and my fate!

Clytemnestra: And ours too, mine and Iphigenia's. One Fate and three victims.

Agamemnon: Who have I wronged?

Clytemnestra: Who have you wronged? What are you thinking of?

Agamemnon: Oh dear I have been betrayed. I have been found out.

Clytemnestra: Yes, I have heard about all what you plan for us. Your silence confesses your guilt. 

Clytemnestra's speech

Hear me now. I will to you plainly. I married you, Agamemnon, against my will. You murdered my first husband, Tantalus, and killed our baby. The Dioscuri, my twin brothers, made war upon you. In the end you had to beg my father, Tyndareus, for peace. He gave me to you as wife. In time I became reconciled to you and your house. Since that time I have been an exemplary wife: modest, blameless and honourable, indeed a rare spoil for a man, in contrast to the very many women who are worthless. I bore to you this son [holding up the baby Orestes] and three daughters. Now you want to tear one of these away from me. Why would any man want to kill his daughter? Do I have to answer this with this answer? 

"So that Menelaos can get his Helen back!"

And so the price for this is our child. You are buying back for your brother an evil woman, a loathsome creature hated by all, with the life of one you love the most.

Think of this. You go off to war. Your absence could extend for a period of many years. How shall I keep your home in Argos? With what heart? Her chair will be empty; her chamber will be empty, and I'll be sitting alone in tears, in endless mourning. I'll cry out "O child, who brought this death upon you?" It was your father I shall answer. This is the hatred, Agamemnon, you leave at home. What more of a pretext do we need to give you the welcome you deserve when you come back home again. By the gods do not force me to become a woman of evil, and you do not become evil yourself.

After you have sacrificed your child and cut her throat what prayers will you offer up? Perhaps for an evil homecoming to match this departure. How can I ask the gods for any blessing for you as you leave? Do you think they are fools to give blessings to the murderers of people who kill their own children?

When you eventually return home to Argos after the war will you embrace your children? What child of yours will look you in the face, knowing you had sacrificed one of them? Did you ever take into consideration any of this, or did you only think of brandishing sceptres and leading men into battle?

Well, here is the offer you must make to the men of the Greek army: "Achaeans, those of you eager to sail to Troy, cast lots to find whose daughter must be sacrificed!" This would be more just than giving up your own daughter as victim. Let Menelaos kill his own daughter [Hermione] to get his wife, Helen, back. My girl is to be torn away from me, I who have been an utterly faithful wife, yet she will return home and prosper, and keep her daughter.

Judge if my words are fair and right. If they are do not kill our girl, but act with sense.

Chorus: Yield to her. It is good to save a child's life.

Iphigenia's Speech

Father, if I had the charm of the magic tongue of Orpheus, I would use it. But I can only cry now. My mother's body gave birth to my body, which now clings to your knees in supplication. Do not take this life of mine before it's due. Nor make me have to descend under the ground into the world of darkness, for it is sweet to see the light of day.

I was the first to call you father and for you to call me child. I was first to sit on your knees. What happiness. You even said "One day I shall see you happily settled in your own home with a husband, like a flower blooming for me in my honour." And I said to you "Father, you will be old and reverend then. With love I will receive you in my home." I would say this to repay you for all the years you have taken care of me. I have memories of all these words, yours and mine, in my head. But it seems you have forgotten these and have a will in your heart to want to kill me. Now my mother who  suffered at my birth, must suffer a second agony. What has Paris and Helen's love for each other to do with me? Why should this mean my death? Look at me and give me a kiss, so that if you don't listen to me at least I can remember this as I die.

[To baby Orestes] Little is the help you are able to give those of us who love you. Weep with me and beg your father not to kill your sister. Even a baby has a sense of grief and wrong. 

Father look at Orestes: he, in his silence, begs you to have mercy on my life. These words conquer all argument. People are mad, those who pray for death. It is better to live in misery than to die in glory.

Chorus: Wicked Helen, through you and your marriages this terrible ordeal has fallen on the House of Atreus. 

Agamemnon's Speech

I know what is to be pitied and what is not. I love my children. I am not a brute. I dread having to carry out this deed, but I have to do it. If I do not the dread still remains. Look at this fleet of ships marshalled here and the huge army from all over Greece gathered amidst them. They cannot set sail against the walls of Troy, or raze it to the ground unless you, Iphigenia, are sacrificed as decreed by Calchas, the renowned seer. I am forced to make you a victim as a demonic power has seized the Greek soldiers which maddens them to want to set sail as soon as possible to stop the barbarians from wanting to rape our women. If I refuse the goddess' oracle the army of all Greece thus angered will come to Argos and murder us all. It's not Menelaos making a slave of me, but Greece which rules me. I am her slave whether I will it or not. I must kill you. I have no power to stop this. Greece turns to you for her freedom so that never again may barbarians [Phrygians] come here to rob her men of their wives.

Exit Agamemnon

Clytemnestra and Iphigenia each sing a lament.

Clytemnestra begins by saying that Agamemnon has betrayed them and run away like a coward.

Iphigenia sings of the fate that the light of day will no longer be hers. She continues the lament how the judgement of the three goddesses by Paris [Alexander prince of Troy] has doomed her to death, how she must be sacrificed to Artemis before the fleet can set sail for Troy. She asks her mother what can she do. She curses Helen and curses Aulis upon which Zeus has sent adverse winds preventing the Greek fleet from sailing. O what misery, what anguish the daughter of Tyndareos has brought down upon Hellas.

The Chorus comment what a cruel fate has befallen her.

Iphigenia sees a group of men approaching. Clytemnestra comments that one of them is Achilles the reason that she was brought to Aulis for. Iphigenia says she is too embarassed to see him, she must hide. The proposed marriage to him was fake. Clytemnestra says that this is a matter of life or death, and she ought not to feel ashamed. 

Enter Achilles

Achilles tells Clytemnestra that the whole army is in uproar, shouting for Iphigenia, demanding that she be sacrificed. Clytemnestra asks him "Did no one stand up for her?" Achilles said he did, but then the rabble threatened him. Clytemnestra then said "What? what man would dare to stand against you?" Achilles replied "All the Greeks, even my Myrmidons." They all called him a woman's man. Achilles told them that Iphigenia had had her hand given to him as bride in marriage by her father, and sent for to bring her here. But he was shouted down. Clytemnestra comments "O what a terrifying and evil thing a mob is." 

Achilles: Nevertheless I will defend you!

Clytemnestra: One man against a thousand?

Achilles: Look, these men have brought my armour for the battle.

Clytemnestra: So my daughter won't be sacrificed?

Achilles: Not if I can stop it.

Clytemnestra: Will they come for her?

Achilles: Yes, thousands, led by Odysseus.

Clytemnestra: Is he acting under orders?

Achillles: He will be chosen, but is happy to do this.

Clytemnestra: Evilly chosen for the deed of murder and bloodshed.

Achilles: I will keep him from the girl.

Clytemnestra: Will he drag her away?

Achilles: By her golden hair! Without doubt!

Clytmnestra: What must I do to prevent her murder?

Achilles: Hold onto the girl tight.

Iphigenia breaks in on this dialogue.

Iphigenia's Speech

Mother, listen to me. We must thank Achilles for his zeal.  You are angry with your husband.  This is foolish. I understand how difficult it is to stand against an irrestible force, and the doom it might bring hard to bear. Let us praise our friend but we must make sure he is not blamed by the army for any of this. Such a thing would only bring utter ruin down upon him and win us nothing. I am resolved to die and want to die well, with glory. shunning whatever is weak and ignoble. All of Greece is turning its eyes upon me, and only me. All lies in my hands. Through me the fleet will set sail, and will be able to capture and overthrow Troy. Through me barbarians will no longer be able to ravish Greek women, and drag them away from happiness and their homes. Paris will be made to pay the price for his rape of Helen. All this can be brought about by my death. I will win honour as the saviour of Greece and my name will be blessed as the one who set Greece free.

It is wrong for me to love life too much. Mother, you gave birth to me for all of Greece, not just yourself. Our country has suffered wrong and injury.  Thousands of men have armed themselves. Thousands more sail in these ships. With great daring they will face the enemy and die for Greece. Will my life prevent this and prove to be the obstacle against their resolve? Where is the justice in this? To the soldiers who are going to die what can we say?

Consider this further. Is it right for one man to make war upon all the Greeks for the sake of one women and surely die? Far better that ten thousand women die to keep this one man alive.

Mother, if Artemis truly wishes to take the life from my body, who am I, a mere mortal, to oppose the divine will? That is unthinkable. I dedicate my body to Greece. Sacrifice me: capture and plunder Troy, my glorious monument. Greek were born to rule barbarians, and not otherwise. They are slaves by nature, and we have freedom in our blood.

Chorus: Princess, your nature indeed is noble and true, but the fault lies with the goddess and fate.


Achilles' Speech

Child of Agamemnon if only I had won you as my bride, I would have sworn a god had given me happiness. Greece has made me envious because you are hers. You have spoken worthily of our country. Choosing not to fight against the will of the god was good and was fated. The more I see of your character the more I want to marry you. Listen to me. I want to serve and help you. I want to carry you home as my wife. Thetis, my godess mother, witness this is the Truth. I am in agony if I am not now to battle with the Greeks to save you. Consider how terrible and evil a thing Death is.

Iphigenia: I have and still want to do what I have said. It is sufficient Helen by her beauty forces men to war with each other. But you, my friend, must not die or kill anyone for me. Let me try to save Greece.

Achilles: What can I say when you have willingly decided to die. Your soul is noble. But you may still yet change your mind. Listen to my proposal. I will go to the altar and place my arms right next to it. I will do this ready to prevent the final stroke of death. Perhaps you might wish to stop it when you see the sword coming towards your throat. I will not let you perish through any thoughtlessness of yours, but will go to the goddess' temple  with these arms and await your arrival there.

Exit Achilles

Iphigenia: Why are you crying? Don't make a coward of me. In this one matter obey me. Do not cut your hair for me, nor clothe yourself in black.

Clytemnestra: Am I not to be allowed to mourn your death as custom permits?

Iphigenia: I will have no grave: the goddess' altar will be my tomb. Do not clothe my sisters in mourning, but give them my farewell. Raise little Orestes to manhood. 

Clytemnestra: I will do all as you wish.

Iphigenia: And do not hate your husband because of this. He didn't want to have to do it, but has to do it for Greece.

Clytemnestra: He bought you here under false pretences. He shamed his family. 

Some guards enter to take Iphigenia away.

Clytemnestra: I shall come with you.

Iphigenia: No, please stay here. I'll not be coming back.

Clytemnestra: Leaving your mother?

Iphigenia: And do not shed one tear.

Exit Clytemnestra into the tent.

Iphigenia speaks to the Chorus

Women of Calchis chant a paean for my sacrifice to Artemis. Let a holy silence be proclaimed throughout the camp. Pepare the holy vessels. Let the pure flame blaze with sprinkled barley corns. Let my father walk around the altar in a clockwise direction following the sun. I come to give all Greece victory.

Iphigenia then raises a processional chant with the Chorus leading her to the temmple of Artemis. They sing of her sacrifice.

Chorus: Your name will live for ever. 

Iphigneia: Farewell bright day. Farewell sky and sunlight. Another world, another place shall be my home forever.

Exit Iphigenia taken away by guards

There follows a short Choral ode, lines 1498-1531

Look at the girl who walks to the goddess' altar so that Troy may be laid low and the Phrygians die. Her hair has been garlanded in honour.  Lustral waters will be sprinkled on her body. She will go to the goddess' altar which she will stain with her blood as it streams from her neck. The Greek army awaits her to sail for Troy. All hail to Artemis for a prosperous fate, you who take pleasure in human blood. Escort the armies of Greece to treacherous Troy. There give Greece and her spearmen victory. There give Agamemnon the crown of glory everlasting. 

Exit Chorus

Supplementary [Alternative] Ending to Iphigenia at Aulis [Lines 1532 - 1630]

This ending has been transmitted as an alternative and additional ending of the play. Modern scholars think it is probably spurious and of a later date. Its function seems to be that it seeks to justify and provide continuity for the story described in the myth of Iphigenia in Tauris, in which Iphigenia has been rescued by the goddess Artemis from being slaughtered on her altar at Aulis. 

[The Chorus has remained in the Orchestra]

Enter a Second Messenger has come from the Temple of Artemis, and has witnessed the sacrifice of Iphigenia. He asks Clytemnestra to step outside. He has news of the wonders he had beheld there.

Clytemnestra steps out of Agamemnon's tent. She asks the messenger to tell her his account of what he saw.

The Second Messenger tells her that after they had reached Artemis' sacred grove with Iphigenia, the Greek army was assembled. When Agamemnon saw his daughter walk up to the grove, he wept. 

Iphigenia stood before her father and said "Father, I am here at your command. Willingly I give my body to be sacrificed for Greece. If it is the will of heaven lead me to the goddess' altar. May you all prosper and win victory in this war, and return home safely. Let no Argive touch me with his hand. I offer my neck to the knife." Every man present spoke of the maid's courage and nobility. 

Talthybius then proclaimed an order for the army to keep silent. Calchas, the seer and priest, usheathed his sharp knife putting it in a golden vessel. He placed a wreathe on the Iphigenia's head. Achilles took up the barley and the purified waters, and ran round the altar crying out to the goddess Artemis to accept this their sacrifice, pleading for the fleet to be allowed to set sail, and for a blessing from her for a safe voyage to Troy and for the Greek army to destroy Troy. 

All heads were bowed. Calchas took up the knife, uttered a prayer, looking for a place on the maid's neck where to strike his blow. Suddenly a great miracle came to pass. Everyone heard Calchas' blow strike, but no one understood or could explain what happened afterwards. The maid had vanished as if by magic. In her place there lay a hind panting its last: the goddess' altar was covered in its blood. Calchas spoke: "Commanders, you see this victim, a mountain hind. Artemis has received this sacrifice with joy in lieu of the maid, and has accepted the offering. She grants safe voyage to the fleet to sail for Troy. Let every sailor make his way to his ship, for on this day the fleet must leave Aulis and cross the Aegean."  After this the deer's body was placed on the temple's furnace. When the holy flames of the furnace had finished consuming it, Calchas delivered a prayer for the safe homecoming of the army.

The messenger explained to Clytemnestra that he had been sent to her by Agamemnon to give her a report of all this. By what has happened he has won immortal glory throughout Greece. He tells her that their daughter has clearly ascended into the heavens to be with the gods, and that she should put aside her grief. The gods act in ways which men do not expect. They save those dearest to them, for she who has died has come alive again. 

Chorus: With gladness we hear this messenger's report.

Clytemnestra: O child! what god has stolen you from me? How may I know that this is not a false story made to stop my grieving?

Chorus: King Agamemnon approaches. He will tell you the same story.

Enter Agamemnon from the side.

Agamemnon: My wife, we can now be truly happy. Our daughter is now in the company of the gods. Now you must take baby Orestes home. The army has to make the voyage. It will be a long while before I return home from Troy to be able to greet you again. Farewell and may all go well with you.

Exit Agamemnon

Chorus: Go with good fortune to the land of the Phrygians. May you capture fine spoils from Troy.

Exeunt Clytemnestra and the Chorus.

References

Iphigenia in Aulis - Wikipedia

Iphigenia in Aulis by Euripides - GreekMythology.com

Euripides: Iphigenia at Aulis - Tom's Learning Notes

Iphigenia - GreekMythology.com

Calchas - Wikipedia

Calchas - GreekMythology.com

Euripides: Iphigenia at Aulis (Ἰϕιγένεια ἐν Aὐλίδι) - Wiley Online Library

IPHIGENIA AT AULIS - EURIPIDES | PLAY SUMMARY & ANALYSIS | Sacrifice of Iphigenia

Iphigenia in Aulis - Course Hero

The Story of Iphigenia in Greek Mythology - Owlcation - Education

Calchas - GreekMythology.com

Achilles (The Trojan War Hero) - GreekMythology.com

Menelaus - GreeekMythology.com

Agamemnon - GreekMythology.com

 Talthybius - Wikipedia

Clytemnestra - GreekMythology.com

Artemis (Greek Goddess of the Hunt and the Moon) - GreekMythology.com

Helen - GreekMythology.com

Orestes - GreekMythology.com

Judgement of Paris - Wikipedia

Electra - GreekMythology.com

Aulis (ancient Greece) - Wikipedia

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Euripides with an English commentary - Internet Archive

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Herbert Siegel. “Self-Delusion and the ‘Volte-Face’ of Iphigenia in Euripides' 'Iphigenia at Aulis'.” Hermes, vol. 108, no. 3, 1980, pp. 300–321. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4476170.

McDonald, Marianne. “Iphigenia's ‘Philia’: Motivation in Euripides ‘Iphigenia at Aulis.’” Quaderni Urbinati Di Cultura Classica, vol. 34, no. 1, 1990, pp. 69–84. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/20547029. 

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Pietruczuk, Katarzyna. “The Prologue of ‘Iphigenia Aulidensis’ Reconsidered.” Mnemosyne, vol. 65, no. 4/5, 2012, pp. 565–583., www.jstor.org/stable/41725240

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Dissimilar Representations of Agamemnon in Ancient Greek Literature
E Bellwoar - 2015 - Pennsylvania State University
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Ritual and Communication in the Graeco-Roman World - Greek Sanctuaries as Places of Communication through Rituals: An Archaeological Perspective - Presses universitaires de Liège

Human Sacrifice in Greek Antiquity: Between Myth, Image, and Reality |- Academic Commons

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Greek Versions

Teubner - Euripides - Iphigenia Aulidensis

Euripides, Iphigenia in Aulis - Perseus Digital Library

Ιφιγένεια εν Αυλίδι by Euripides - Project Gutenberg

Iphigeneia at Aulis C.E.S. Headlam

Euripides with an English commentary  F.A.Paley - Internet Archive  p.480

Iphigenia at Aulis - Euripides - Google Books Aris & Phillips Classical Textx

Readings in renaissance women's drama : criticism, history, and performance, 1594-1998 - Internet Archive
3. Jane Lumley's Iphigenia at Aulis pp 129-41

Translations

Euripides IV : Euripides p. 209 Internet Archive - University of Chicago Press

Euripides, Iphigenia in Aulis - Perseus Digital Library

Iphigenia At Aulis by Euripides - Internet Classics Archive

Iphigenia in Aulis (Euripides) - Wikisource

Iphigenia At Aulis translated by E. P. Coleridge

Euripides - Arthur S. Way

Iphigenia in Aulis (Buckley) - Wikisource

Bacchae ; Iphigenia at Aulis ; Rhesus : Euripides - Internet Archive  David Kovacs p. 155-

Iphigenia among the Taurians ; Bacchae ; Iphigenia at Aulis ; Rhesus : Euripides - Internet Archive p.84-

Orestes, and other plays : Euripides - Internet Archive  P. Vellacott p. 363-427

Euripides (19 April 2013). David Grene, (ed.). Euripides V: Bacchae, Iphigenia in Aulis, The Cyclops, Rhesus. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-30898-2.

Euripides (2017). Iphigenia at Aulis. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1-911226-46-8.

Euripides (17 May 2012). Euripides: Iphigeneia at Aulis. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-60116-1.

Three tragedies by renaissance women - Internet Archive
The Tragedie of Iphigenia in a version by Lady Jane Lumley (ca 1555)
Iphigenia at Aulis : Euripides - Internet Archive

Audio/Visual

Iphigenia w/eng subs - YouTube - Michael Cacoyannis (1962)

Iphigenia in Aulis, Euripides - Reading Greek Tragedy Online - YouTube - Center for Hellenic Studies

Ancient Greek theater performance: Iphigenia in Avlidi of Euripides - YouTube

Iphigenia : Audio Archive : Internet Archive