I. Introduction: Menander and the Landscape of New Comedy
Menander (c. 342-290 BC) stands as the preeminent figure of ancient Greek New Comedy, a genre he largely shaped and perfected.1 His prolific career saw him author over one hundred plays, yet his immediate success was somewhat limited, as he achieved only eight victories at Athenian dramatic festivals, a number fewer than his contemporary Philemon.2 Paradoxically, his reputation soared posthumously, with ancient critics recognizing him as the "supreme poet" of New Comedy.2
Menander's dramatic career unfolded during a tumultuous period in Athenian history, marked by the ascendance of Macedon and the subsequent curtailment of Athenian political autonomy.1 Born into a prominent Athenian family, he was a student of the philosopher Theophrastus, a successor to Aristotle, and a friend of Demetrius of Phaleron, influences that likely shaped his thematic and moral leanings.2 His first play, Orgē ("Anger"), premiered in 321 BC.2 The historical context of Athens being under Macedonian control, which limited political freedom and expression, appears to have significantly influenced the evolution of dramatic genre during Menander's time.4 The diminishing scope for overt political commentary, characteristic of Old Comedy, compelled playwrights like Menander to turn their focus inward, exploring the private sphere of the household and individual relationships. This strategic pivot not only preserved the relevance of comedy but also imbued citizens' personal lives and domestic problems with meaning, thereby elevating the importance of domestic settings and female characters within the dramatic landscape.8
The contrast between Menander's modest contemporary success and his profound posthumous influence highlights a recurring pattern in artistic history: immediate popular acclaim does not always equate to enduring critical recognition or lasting impact. Menander's sophisticated character development, nuanced moral explorations, and universal themes, perhaps less overtly sensational than the political satire of Old Comedy, proved more adaptable and profound for later generations and cultures.1 His commitment to "real moral drama" 6 may have been ahead of its time, allowing his work to transcend its immediate context and achieve lasting significance.
Distinction between Old and New Comedy
New Comedy, championed by Menander, represented a profound departure from the earlier traditions of Greek Old Comedy, most famously embodied by Aristophanes.2 Old Comedy was characterized by its boisterous, often grotesque, satire of public figures, political events, and philosophical ideas, frequently employing elaborate costumes (e.g., animal choruses), song, dance, and personal invective.2
In stark contrast, Menander's New Comedy shifted its focus from public affairs to the intricacies of everyday life, domestic settings, and relatable characters.3 The once-prominent chorus receded in importance, often confined to performing brief, incidental dances or musical numbers between acts, rather than engaging in direct political commentary or playing a central narrative function.1 This stylistic evolution mirrored broader societal changes in the Hellenistic period, emphasizing individualism and personal relationships over collective civic identity.4
The Challenge of Textual Preservation
The study of Menander is inherently challenged by the fragmentary nature of his surviving corpus. Out of over one hundred plays, only Dyskolos ('The Grouch') survives in a nearly intact state.1 While Epitrepontes is sometimes cited as "complete" 13, more precise scholarly consensus indicates it is "half-preserved intact" or exists in "large parts" 5, allowing for detailed reconstruction.
Prior to the early twentieth century, Menander's work was known primarily through scattered quotations and, crucially, through the adaptations of Roman playwrights like Plautus and Terence.1 However, remarkable papyri discoveries, notably in 1905 at Aphroditopolis and in 1958 (which yielded Dyskolos), unearthed substantial portions of several texts, including Aspis, Epitrepontes, Misoumenos, Perikeiromene, and Samia.1 These discoveries provided uniquely direct and unmediated access to Menander's original texts, free from the interpretive layers of later classical scholars.1 The fragmentary nature of most of his work, however, makes a definitive analysis of his artistic development difficult.6
Table 1: Menander's Extant and Partially Extant Plays: Preservation Status and Core Themes
II. Defining Characteristics of Menander's New Comedy
Menander's comedies are distinguished by their realistic portrayals of everyday Athenian life, deliberately eschewing mythological themes or direct divine intervention (though gods may appear in prologues) in favor of human experiences.11 His plots intricately weave around universal themes such as familial relationships (misunderstandings, generational conflicts, and eventual reunions), romantic entanglements (the obstacles faced by young lovers, the complexities of desire), and the nuances of social status (class differences, social mobility, and the importance of citizenship).3 Menander often elevated his comedies beyond mere frivolity, incorporating elements of "moral drama" and offering compassionate treatments of complex human problems.6 This approach allowed for the development of "nuanced and psychologically complex characters," distinguishing his work from the broader comedic landscape.10
Thematic Focus
Menander's comedies, while aiming for laughter, frequently initiate with deeply serious or potentially tragic premises, such as rape (Epitrepontes) 6, domestic violence (Perikeiromene) 16, or presumed death (Aspis).6 These serious situations are then navigated through comedic plot devices like mistaken identity and recognition.6 Critics note a "greater depth" and "compassionate treatment of human problems" in his work.6 This demonstrates Menander's sophisticated approach to comedy, where the genre is not merely about superficial humor but serves as a vehicle for exploring complex human emotions, moral dilemmas, and societal issues. The comedic resolution, often involving reconciliation and marriage, does not diminish the initial gravity but rather reflects a societal aspiration for order, harmony, and redemption. This suggests a profound understanding of human nature, where even distressing events can ultimately lead to positive social outcomes, reflecting the "disillusioned spirit and moral ambiguity of the bourgeois class" of his time 9 while still offering optimistic conclusions.
Dramatic Conventions
Menander's plays consistently adhered to a five-act structure, a formal innovation that would become a standard template for subsequent European comedic drama.3 These acts were typically separated by musical interludes performed by the diminished chorus.3 In a significant departure from Old Comedy, the chorus in New Comedy played a minimal role, often confined to performing brief, incidental dances or musical numbers between acts, rather than engaging in direct political commentary or playing a central narrative function.1
Menander frequently employed divine prologues, delivered by a god or an allegorical figure (like Agnoia in Perikeiromene), either at the play's opening or after an initial scene. These prologues served to provide the audience with crucial background information and plot details unknown to the characters, thereby creating dramatic irony and allowing the audience to appreciate the characters' ignorance as the plot unfolded.5 A hallmark of Menander's style was his ability to craft dialogue that conveyed an illusion of colloquial, everyday speech. Despite being written in verse, his lines subtly modulated tone, emotion, and character presentation, contributing to the perceived realism of his plays.3 Menander also demonstrated remarkable sophistication in integrating offstage events into his narratives. He skillfully used reports from characters to convey actions happening inside houses or elsewhere, creating a sense of "simultaneity between offstage and onstage worlds." This technique expanded the dramatic possibilities, allowing him to focus on the "private, interior spaces" and heighten the importance of female characters, who often operated within these domestic domains.8
Stock Characters and Their Nuances
While Menander utilized a repertoire of familiar "stock characters" common in New Comedy, he distinguished himself by imbuing these archetypes with remarkable depth, individual quirks, and psychological complexity, allowing them to "grow and change" over the course of a play.2 The use of stock characters provides a foundational shorthand for the audience, allowing for rapid character recognition and understanding of their typical roles. Menander's genius lies in his ability to subvert or deepen these archetypes, imbuing them with individual personalities, motivations, and the capacity for moral evolution. This creates a dynamic tension between audience expectation and dramatic reality, enabling more sophisticated humor and profound moral exploration. For instance, a "boastful soldier" might be redeemed and integrated into society, or a "hetaera" might prove to be a virtuous freeborn woman. This nuanced approach contributes significantly to the "realistic portrayals of everyday life" 11 that define New Comedy.
Table 2: Common Stock Characters in Menander's New Comedy
Key Plot Devices
Menander's plays are characterized by several recurring plot devices that drive their intricate narratives:
Mistaken Identity: A fundamental element, often involving twins, separated siblings, or disguised individuals, which generates comedic situations through characters' false assumptions and misunderstandings.3
Recognition Scenes (Anagnorisis): Pivotal moments where long-lost relatives are reunited, or true identities are revealed, often triggered by birth tokens (e.g., signet rings, baby clothes).3 These scenes are crucial for resolving complex conflicts and achieving happy endings.
Foundling Babies/Exposed Children: A recurring motif, where unwanted infants are exposed but later found, leading to intricate plot twists and identity revelations.5 The discovery of these children often serves as a catalyst for the play's central conflicts and their eventual resolution.
Dramatic Irony: Menander frequently employed dramatic irony by providing the audience with crucial information (often through divine prologues) that remains unknown to the characters on stage. This heightens comedic tension and allows the audience to appreciate the characters' ignorance and the unfolding misunderstandings.5
Accidental Violation/Rape: A surprisingly common and serious initial situation in Menander's plays, where a young woman is raped (often during a festival), leading to an illegitimate child and subsequent complications regarding marriage and identity.5 These grave beginnings are invariably resolved comically through recognition and reconciliation.
III. Detailed Plot Summaries of Extant and Partially Extant Plays
Dyskolos (The Grouch)
Dyskolos, meaning 'The Grouch' or 'Old Cantankerous', is the most complete of Menander's surviving plays, with only approximately 39 lines missing, making it nearly intact.1 It holds the distinction of winning first prize at the Lenaea festival in 316 BC.1
Setting: The play is set in the rural Athenian village of Phyle, approximately 13 miles north-west of Athens. The stage backdrop features three buildings: the house of Gorgias (Knemon's stepson), the house of Knemon, and a temple dedicated to Pan and the Nymphs. The action unfolds in the street in front of these structures.25
Main Characters:
Knemon: The titular "Grouch" or misanthrope, an irascible old farmer who lives in self-imposed isolation with his daughter and an old servant woman.6
Sostratos: A wealthy young Athenian nobleman who falls deeply in love with Knemon's daughter at first sight.24
Knemon's Daughter: A virtuous and pious young woman who regularly honors the Nymphs at their temple, embodying the principles of good fellowship that Knemon rejects.24
Gorgias: Knemon's virtuous stepson, who lives nearby and represents a more balanced, hardworking character, contrasting sharply with Knemon's misanthropy.6
Pan: The god who delivers the prologue and explicitly states his intention to orchestrate the events of the play, aiming to punish Knemon for his misanthropy and force him to experience a redemption arc.6
Getas: Sostratos's cunning slave, dispatched to help with the courtship, typical of the clever servant archetype in New Comedy.25
Kallippides: Sostratos's father, initially an obstacle to the marriage due to social class differences.25
Core Conflict: Sostratos's immediate infatuation with Knemon's daughter is met with the insurmountable obstacle of her father's extreme reclusiveness and notoriously bad temper, which makes him virtually unapproachable.10 The god Pan initiates the plot to force Knemon to confront his isolation and embrace "good fellowship and love".6 The explicit divine involvement, as stated by Pan in the prologue, serves as a moral framing device. Pan's stated purpose underscores Menander's interest in "moral drama" 6 and the idea that human vices, even those as deeply ingrained as misanthropy, can be overcome. This suggests a worldview where divine forces, while not always overtly miraculous, subtly guide human affairs towards social and ethical rectitude, emphasizing the importance of "good fellowship and love" 6 as core societal values.
Plot Progression:
Prologue: The play opens with the god Pan emerging from his temple. He explains the background of Knemon, the ill-tempered old man who lives alone with his daughter and servant, having driven away his wife and stepson due to his difficult nature. Pan reveals that he has caused Sostratos, a wealthy young Athenian, to fall in love with Knemon's daughter, whom he saw honoring the Nymphs in Pan's temple. Pan's aim is to bring about Knemon's redemption and integrate him back into society.6
Act 1: Sostratos, accompanied by his friend Chaireas, expresses his love for the girl. He had sent his slave, Pyrrhias, to speak with Knemon, but Pyrrhias returns running, shouting that Knemon, in a furious rage, chased and beat him with stones. Sostratos, doubting Pyrrhias's competence, sends him home and decides to wait for Knemon himself. Knemon emerges from his orchard, grumbling about trespassers, and rudely dismisses Sostratos. Sostratos, feeling shy and out of his element, decides to fetch his father's cunning slave, Getas, to handle the delicate matter. Soon after, Knemon's daughter appears, distraught because her old servant has accidentally dropped the water-pot down the well. She needs water from the Nymphs' temple for her father's bath. Sostratos steps forward and offers to help her, taking her jar into the temple. Unbeknownst to Sostratos, Daos, a slave of Gorgias (Knemon's stepson), observes this interaction and misinterprets Sostratos's intentions, immediately deciding to inform his master.25
Middle Acts (Reconstructed): Sostratos, realizing the difficulty of approaching Knemon directly, endeavors to win over Gorgias, Knemon's stepson. Sostratos demonstrates his own work ethic and sincerity by participating in manual labor, thereby gaining Gorgias as an ally. Gorgias, initially suspicious, comes to respect Sostratos's character and assists him in his pursuit of Knemon's daughter.25
Climax: The turning point arrives when Knemon, in an absurd and fitting twist of fate, falls into his own well.25 This incident forces him to rely on others, specifically Sostratos and Gorgias, who heroically work together to rescue him despite his previous hostility. This moment of vulnerability and dependence begins to break down Knemon's misanthropic facade.25
Resolution: Humbled by his near-death experience and the unexpected kindness of Sostratos and Gorgias, Knemon relents and grants Sostratos his blessing to marry his daughter.25 Furthermore, Sostratos persuades his own father, Kallippides, to agree to a second marriage, betrothing his own daughter to Gorgias, thus forging a double alliance between the families and symbolizing the triumph of good fellowship. The play concludes with Knemon being comically, yet symbolically, dragged "kicking and screaming" by the other characters to join the wedding feast, signifying his forced reintegration into society and the triumph of community over misanthropy.25
Epitrepontes (The Arbitration)
Epitrepontes, commonly translated as 'The Arbitration', is a significantly preserved play, described as "half-preserved intact" 5 or existing in "large parts" 9, allowing for a comprehensive reconstruction of its intricate plot.14 While one source states it "survives completely" 13, the more detailed accounts suggest substantial, but not absolute, completeness.
Setting: The play is set in a suburb of Athens during the fourth century B.C.E. The central action unfolds in a street featuring the houses of the young married couple, Pamphila and Charisius, and their neighbor Chaerestratus.14
Main Characters:
Pamphila: The young wife, daughter of Smicrines. She was raped prior to her marriage and later gave birth to a child, which she exposed.6
Charisius: Pamphila's husband, who mistakenly believes the child is not his, leading to his estrangement from his wife and dissolute behavior.14
Smicrines: Pamphila's miserly, perpetually grouchy, and interfering father, a classic "stern father" archetype.14
Onesimus: Charisius's clever and cunning slave, who plays a pivotal role in unraveling the mystery through his recognition of a key object.14
Chaerestratus: Charisius's friend and neighbor, whose house becomes a temporary refuge for Charisius and a site for his lavish parties.14
Davus: A goatherd who discovers the exposed infant in the hills.14
Syriscus: A charcoal burner, who, along with Davus, brings the dispute over the baby and its tokens to arbitration.6
Habrotonon: A beautiful harp-playing slave, initially perceived as Charisius's mistress, but later revealed to be Smicrines's long-lost daughter, Clearista.14
Sophrona: Pamphila's nurse, who advised her to expose the infant.14
Core Conflict: The central conflict revolves around a troubled marriage. Pamphila, having been raped by a drunken young man during the Tauropolia festival before her marriage to Charisius, gives birth to a child five months into the marriage. Charisius, unaware of the rape, assumes the child is not his and withdraws from Pamphila, engaging in dissolute behavior and neglecting her for a harp-playing slave, Habrotonon.6 The subsequent exposure of the infant with identifying tokens sets in motion a chain of events that will gradually reveal the truth and reconcile the estranged couple.
Plot Progression:
Pamphila is raped during the Tauropolia festival, with the assailant leaving behind a signet ring.14 She later marries Charisius. During his absence, she gives birth and, following her nurse Sophrona's advice, exposes the infant, leaving a pouch containing various tokens, including the signet ring.14
Charisius, learning of the birth, mistakenly concludes the child cannot be his. Instead of repudiating Pamphila, he leaves home and begins to spend lavishly on parties at his friend Chaerestratus's house, neglecting Pamphila, who is distressed by his desertion.14
The plot thickens when Davus, a goatherd, finds the exposed baby in the hills. He later disputes with Syriscus, a charcoal burner, over the trinkets found with the child, as Syriscus wishes to adopt the baby but insists on the tokens for identification. Smicrines, Pamphila's miserly father, who has arrived to investigate Charisius's spending, is persuaded to arbitrate the dispute. He rules that the tokens must remain with the baby, a decision that ironically facilitates the later revelations.14
Crucially, Onesimus, Charisius's slave, recognizes the signet ring among the tokens as one Charisius lost during the Tauropolia festival a year prior.14 Habrotonon, the harp-playing slave, sees the ring and, understanding its significance, devises a plan: she will wear the ring to see if Charisius recognizes it, hoping to secure the child's future and her own freedom by claiming to be the mother.14 The signet ring and other tokens found with the exposed baby are not merely incidental details; they are central to the plot. Their recognition by various characters (Onesimus, Habrotonon, Smicrines) drives the unraveling of the complex web of mistaken identities. This highlights Menander's masterful application of anagnorisis (recognition) as a core plot device. The tokens function as tangible links to the past, embodying hidden truths and serving as catalysts for dramatic revelations that propel the narrative towards its resolution. This reflects a broader New Comedy convention where seemingly minor objects carry immense narrative weight, connecting past events (the rape, the exposure) to present conflicts and ultimately facilitating the restoration of familial and social order. It also underscores the role of fate and coincidence in human affairs, often mediated through such material evidence.
Smicrines, determined to dissolve Pamphila's marriage and reclaim her dowry, reappears. Pamphila, however, steadfastly defends her marriage, expressing her enduring love for Charisius and her belief that his infatuation is temporary.14
As the truth begins to surface, Pamphila faints upon hearing that Charisius's current "love" (Habrotonon) is the mother of his child (unaware it is her own child).14 Upon regaining consciousness, she blames her nurse for preventing her from confessing earlier.14
Habrotonon, recognizing Pamphila as Charisius's companion from the night of the rape, conveys this crucial information to Charisius. Although initially disbelieved, Habrotonon firmly maintains the truth, prioritizing the child's welfare over her own freedom.14 Habrotonon is initially introduced by Smicrines as a hetaera (paid female companion) and a "harlot" 15, implying a morally ambiguous or low social status. However, she quickly proves to be a character of remarkable intelligence, agency, and moral integrity, actively devising a plan to help the child and ultimately being revealed as a freeborn citizen.14 This exemplifies Menander's nuanced approach to stock characters. He takes a potentially one-dimensional archetype and imbues her with depth, challenging audience expectations and subverting conventional stereotypes. This subversion allows for a deeper exploration of social roles, individual worth, and the potential for virtue to emerge from unexpected places, contributing to Menander's "compassionate treatment of human problems".6 Her strong desire for freedom further humanizes her, making her a sympathetic and active agent in the play's resolution.
The final piece of the puzzle falls into place when a small silver cup among the tokens is identified by Smicrines as belonging to his elder daughter, Clearista, who was kidnapped years ago. Sophrona, Pamphila's nurse, confirms Habrotonon is indeed Clearista, recalling her baby name "grasshopper".14
Resolution: With all identities revealed, Charisius realizes the child is his own and reconciles with Pamphila, recognizing her nobility and steadfastness.6 Chaerestratus, who has long admired Habrotonon/Clearista, asks to marry her, cleverly convincing the miserly Smicrines of the financial benefits of this union, thus securing both the girl and her father's blessing.14 Onesimus, the clever slave, is likely rewarded with his freedom for his instrumental role in the revelations.14 The play culminates in a series of revelations, reconciliations, and suitable marriages, reflecting Menander's themes of redemption and the restoration of social harmony.6
Perikeiromene (The Girl with her Hair Cut Short)
Perikeiromene, translated as 'The Girl with her Hair Cut Short', is a partially preserved Ancient Greek comedy by Menander, with approximately 40-45% of the original text (around 450 lines) surviving on papyrus.16 It is believed to have been first performed around 314/313 BC.16
Setting: The play is most likely set in Corinth.16
Main Characters:
Polemon: A Corinthian mercenary soldier, characterized by his volatile temper and jealousy.16
Glykera: Polemon's common-law wife (pallake), the "girl with her hair cut short".16
Moschion: A young neighbor who is secretly in love with Glykera and has been stalking her, later revealed to be her twin brother.16
Pataikos: An old Corinthian, a friend of Polemon, who is later revealed to be the long-lost father of both Glykera and Moschion.16
Agnoia (Ignorance): A personified allegorical figure who delivers a delayed prologue, providing crucial background information to the audience, a common device in New Comedy.16
Sosias: Polemon's slave or flag lieutenant, who reports Glykera's embrace of Moschion.16
Myrrhine: Moschion's wealthy mother, who provides refuge for Glykera.16
Core Conflict: The play's central conflict is ignited by an act of domestic violence: Polemon, recently returned from fighting, learns from his slave Sosias that Glykera was seen embracing their neighbor's son, Moschion. In a fit of jealous rage, Polemon violently cuts off Glykera's long hair.16 Glykera then seeks refuge with Myrrhine, Moschion's mother, next door. The play revolves around the subsequent misunderstandings and the path to reconciliation. The audience is privy to the truth from the outset: Moschion is Glykera's brother, and she was aware of their familial connection, creating dramatic irony.16
Plot Progression:
Lost Opening: The play likely began with Glykera's flight from Polemon's house following the violent haircut.16
Delayed Prologue: The personified goddess Agnoia ("Ignorance") appears to reveal the crucial truth to the audience: Moschion is Glykera's twin brother, and Glykera knew this, which explains the seemingly compromising embrace. Both were exposed as infants and raised separately by different women.16 This divine explanation frames Polemon's violent act as a result of "Ignorance" rather than inherent corruption, setting the stage for his eventual redemption.16
Act II: Moschion, unaware of the full truth known to the audience, mistakenly believes Glykera has sought refuge with his mother because she desires to become his concubine. His mother, Myrrhine, keeps him away from her, further complicating his misunderstanding.16
Act III: Polemon, consumed by jealousy, attempts a comical assault on Myrrhine's house, leading a rag-tag "army" consisting of male slaves, a female flute-player, and a cook with a pig. This comical attack by a mercenary soldier with non-military figures was a common scene in comedies featuring mercenaries. However, Polemon's older friend, Pataikos, intervenes and talks him out of the ill-conceived attack, preventing further escalation.16
Act IV: Pataikos, at Polemon's behest, attempts to negotiate with Glykera. During their conversation, Glykera explains the truth about the embrace to Pataikos and asks him to retrieve her belongings from Polemon's house, specifically mentioning the baby clothes in which she was exposed. This request triggers the pivotal recognition scene: Pataikos discovers that both Glykera and Moschion are his children, whom he had exposed long ago after losing his fortune and his wife dying in childbirth. This scene comically parodies tragic recognition tropes, adding a layer of meta-theatrical humor.16
Resolution: As a result of the recognition, Glykera forgives the now contrite Polemon in Act V, and they are married.16 Pataikos subsequently betroths Moschion to another girl.16 The play concludes with a profound transformation of the main characters, who move from being marginal figures (a concubine with unclear citizenship, a mercenary soldier) to assuming conventional and respectable roles within the polis (citizen wife, settled husband, head of a family), symbolizing their full integration into society.16 Polemon's character arc, starting with an act of domestic violence linked to his mercenary status, and culminating in his integration into civilian society, exemplifies Menander's characteristic humanization and psychological deepening of stock characters. The "boastful soldier," often a figure of disruption or caricature, is given a clear path to redemption and integration into Athenian society. This narrative arc aligns with Menander's broader thematic interests in "reconciliation" and the "reform of an older man".6 It also subtly comments on the societal need to integrate potentially disruptive elements (like returning mercenaries) into the social fabric, reinforcing the domestic and social focus of New Comedy and its emphasis on restoring harmony.
Samia (The Girl from Samos)
Samia, or 'The Girl from Samos', is considered the second most complete of Menander's works, with "almost all" of its text surviving, though with 9 short gaps in Acts I-II and a total of 132 lines missing.5 It was recovered with the "Cairo Codex" in 1907, alongside other significant fragments.17
Setting: The action unfolds on a street in Athens, featuring two neighboring houses belonging to Demeas and Nikeratos.26
Main Characters:
Demeas: A wealthy Athenian citizen, adoptive father of Moschion and master of Chrysis.17
Moschion: Demeas's adopted son, a young Athenian gentleman, who is secretly the father of Plangon's child.17
Plangon: Nikeratos's daughter, secretly pregnant by Moschion.17
Nikeratos: Demeas's poorer neighbor, Plangon's father.17
Chrysis: A Samian girl, Demeas's concubine, who is nursing Plangon's baby, pretending it is her own.17
Parmenon: Demeas's servant, who accompanies Moschion.26
Core Conflict: The intricate plot is driven by a series of misunderstandings stemming from a carefully guarded secret. Moschion has accidentally impregnated his neighbor Plangon. Chrysis, Demeas's concubine, is nursing Plangon's baby, pretending it is her own after her own baby died. When Demeas returns from a trip, he mistakenly believes that Chrysis has seduced his adopted son, Moschion, and that the baby she is nursing is their illegitimate child.6 The entire central conflict in Samia is predicated on Demeas overhearing a conversation and misinterpreting the information, leading him to believe a false narrative about his son and concubine.17 This highlights Menander's exceptional skill in crafting intricate plots driven by miscommunication and dramatic irony. The audience is aware of the truth, creating a layer of comedic tension as they watch the characters navigate their false assumptions. This device underscores the fragility of truth in human interactions and the ease with which assumptions can spiral into chaos within the intimate sphere of the household, a recurrent theme in Menander's "intricate plots".6 It demonstrates how human foibles and imperfect information can be the primary engines of comedic conflict.
Plot Progression:
Prologue (Moschion): The play opens with Moschion delivering a soliloquy, setting the scene and confessing that he "accidentally" violated Plangon during a festival, leading to her pregnancy. He reveals that Chrysis, his father's concubine, is nursing the child, pretending it is hers, as her own baby had died. Both fathers, Demeas and Nikeratos, are away but expected to return soon.17
Upon their return from a trip to Pontos, Demeas and Nikeratos jointly decide that Demeas's adopted son, Moschion, will marry Nikeratos's daughter, Plangon.17 This decision, made in ignorance of the true parentage of the child, sets the stage for the comedic complications.
As the play progresses, Demeas overhears a conversation from Moschion's nurse. He misinterprets this information to mean that Chrysis has seduced his adopted son, Moschion, and that the baby she is nursing is their illegitimate offspring. This misunderstanding fuels Demeas's anger and suspicion.17
In a fit of anger and misjudgment, Demeas sends Chrysis away from his house. Chrysis, having nowhere else to go, is taken in by his neighbor, Nikeratos, who is also Plangon's father. This act further complicates the situation, creating a series of chaotic and humorous confrontations between the households.17
Resolution: Eventually, Moschion is compelled to reveal the full truth about his relationship with Plangon and the baby's true parentage to his father, Demeas.17 After a series of chaotic situations and further misunderstandings are cleared, Demeas and Nikeratos find common ground and reconcile. The play culminates in Moschion marrying Plangon, resolving the mistaken identities and restoring proper familial relationships, typical of Menander's focus on domestic harmony and the restoration of order.6
Aspis (The Shield)
Aspis, meaning 'The Shield', is a New Comedy where the "first half" of the play is preserved, along with significant portions discovered in 1905.1 Detailed scholarly reconstructions allow for a comprehensive understanding of its plot, characters, conflicts, and resolutions.18
Setting: The play is set in Athens, with two Athenian house-doors visible on the stage. One belongs to Smikrines, and the other to Chairestratos, who is Kleostratos's uncle.18
Main Characters:
Daos: A Phrygian slave, loyal and intelligent, who serves Kleostratos. He is the central figure in devising the play's main ruse.18
Kleostratos: A young Athenian of limited means, Daos's master. He went off to serve as a mercenary to earn a dowry for his sister. He is initially presumed dead but is later revealed to be alive.18
Smikrines: Kleostratos's uncle on his father's side, described as "the greatest villain in the world".18 He is avaricious, selfish, and cares only for wealth, particularly Kleostratos's inheritance.18
Chairestratos: Kleostratos's other uncle on his father's side, a younger brother of Smikrines. He is a kind and richer man, married for the second time, and guardian of Kleostratos's sister.18
Kleostratos's Sister: An heiress whose marriage and property are central to the plot, as Athenian law allows male relatives to marry an heiress to keep property in the family.18
Chaireas: Chairestratos's stepson, engaged to Kleostratos's sister.18
Tyche (Fortune): The goddess who speaks the prologue, providing crucial information to the audience, a typical New Comedy device.18
Bogus Doctor: A friend of Chaireas who pretends to be a foreign doctor as part of Daos's scheme.18
Core Conflict: The central conflict is Smikrines's greedy attempt to seize Kleostratos's inheritance by forcing a marriage with the heiress, Kleostratos's sister, using Athenian law to his advantage after hearing of Kleostratos's supposed death.18 The play's comedic resolution hinges on the cunning slave Daos's elaborate stratagem to outwit Smikrines.
Plot Progression:
Act 1: The play opens with Daos, a Phrygian slave, appearing before two Athenian house-doors, leading captured slaves and carrying a battered shield. He laments the supposed death of his master, Kleostratos, who had gone to Asia Minor as a mercenary. Daos recounts Kleostratos's acquisition of 600 gold pieces and other wealth, and the surprise attack where his master was supposedly killed, with only his battered shield found among unrecognizable corpses.18 Smikrines, Kleostratos's avaricious uncle, overhears Daos. He feigns sorrow but quickly reveals his true interest in the wealth. His comments throughout Daos's narration betray his intense greed.18
After Smikrines enters his house, the goddess Tyche appears to deliver the prologue. She immediately reassures the audience that Kleostratos is not truly dead; he was taken prisoner, and his companion, who took Kleostratos's shield, was the one killed. Tyche explains Kleostratos's family situation: Smikrines is his villainous paternal uncle, while Chairestratos, another paternal uncle, is kind and wealthy. Chairestratos has arranged for Kleostratos's sister to marry his stepson, Chaireas, providing a dowry. Tyche reveals that Smikrines, coveting Kleostratos's returned wealth, plans to use Athenian law to force Kleostratos's sister to marry him, as he is the oldest surviving male relative. The goddess assures the audience that Smikrines will fail and only expose his depravity.18
Smikrines re-emerges, talking to himself about his supposed lack of interest in the money, while subtly threatening Daos to ensure the truth about the property. He then confronts Daos, stating his intention to marry Kleostratos's sister himself, citing his brother Chairestratos's supposed exploitation. Daos, while acknowledging his duty as a slave, refuses to intervene in family disputes. A cook and his assistant then enter, lamenting their bad luck as the supposed death has cancelled a feast, providing comic relief.18
Act 2: The second act begins with Smikrines and Chairestratos meeting. Smikrines insists that after the funeral, Chairestratos should not promise the girl to anyone, as it is his business to marry her due to his seniority. Chairestratos protests, offering Smikrines all of Kleostratos's property if he allows the girl to marry Chaireas, even offering two talents as a dowry from his own money. Smikrines refuses, fearing that if they have a child, he would be prosecuted for possessing their property. Smikrines then demands an inventory of the brought property from Daos and leaves.18
Chairestratos expresses his despair. Chaireas enters, lamenting his sudden change of fortune. Daos emerges from Chairestratos's house, trying to rouse the collapsed Chairestratos and urging Chaireas to comfort him. Chairestratos, in a frenzy over his brother's villainy, confirms Smikrines's intention to marry the girl himself. Daos then proposes a cunning plan to outwit Smikrines.18
Daos's Ruse: Daos's plan involves staging a catastrophe: Chairestratos must pretend to die from a sudden illness caused by grief over Kleostratos's supposed death and the girl's plight. They will bring in a bogus doctor to diagnose a quick-killing ailment. Chairestratos will be locked inside, while a dummy corpse in a shroud will be displayed. This will make Chairestratos's daughter an heiress with a large fortune (sixty talents, compared to the other girl's four). Daos predicts that Smikrines, driven by greed, will immediately abandon his claim on Kleostratos's sister and instead try to marry Chairestratos's newly-rich daughter. Once Smikrines has claimed Chairestratos's property and perhaps removed some, Chairestratos will emerge from hiding and threaten to prosecute him for theft, incurring a double penalty under Attic law.18 Chairestratos agrees to the plan, and Chaireas is tasked with finding a clever but fraudulent foreign doctor. Chairestratos decides to inform only his wife and daughters to prevent them from crying and revealing the ruse.18
Act 3: Smikrines emerges, expressing his suspicion of Daos and believing that Daos is hiding more property. Daos then rushes out of Chairestratos's house in a feigned state of excitement and distress, quoting tragic lines to convey the "terrible thing" that has happened. He informs Smikrines that Chairestratos is "pretty well dead" from a "bilious attack, some kind of stroke of grief, a mental seizure, a choking fit." Smikrines is shocked and protests. Chaireas arrives with the bogus doctor, and they all vanish into the house. Smikrines, fearing he might be seen as gloating, enters his own house.18 After a gap in the text, Chaireas and the doctor are seen talking to Smikrines outside. The doctor, speaking in a generalized Doric dialect and using technical jargon, diagnoses "phrenitis" and declares there is no hope of recovery. Smikrines, though seemingly accepting the news, is also concerned for his own health. Smikrines observes the women plundering the house and giving instructions to neighbors through waterpipes, indicating the chaos of a death in the house. Daos appears, intending to shock Smikrines, but the text breaks off.18
Act 4 (Fragments): A large gap follows, covering about 205 lines. The next available fragments are from the end of the fourth act. One scene suggests that the ruse has worked, with Smikrines possibly betrothing Kleostratos's sister to the first applicant (presumably Chaireas). Kleostratos then appears before Chairestratos's house, saluting his native country. He wonders if Daos has returned safely. When he knocks, Daos, from inside, asks who it is and informs him that the master of the house is dead. Kleostratos expresses sorrow, and Daos, after a moment of recognition, exclaims, "I have you," a classic formula in recognition scenes. The fourth act ends shortly after this recognition, implying that the plot's main working out is complete.18
Act 5 (Fragments and Resolution): Only portions of the first twenty-nine lines of the fifth act are preserved, with about ninety lines missing after that. As expected, there is mention of a "double wedding," "his daughter," and "his niece," and "all the property." A betrothal formula, common in New Comedy finales, is also present.18
Resolution: The play is expected to conclude with the final happiness of the sympathetic characters, centered on a "komos" (scene of revelry) celebrating the double wedding. It is strongly assumed that Daos, for his loyalty and intelligence, is rewarded with freedom and the competence he had given up hope for at the play's beginning. The cook, who had a personal grudge against Smikrines, might also participate in bullying Smikrines during the revelry. The good characters are rewarded, and the greedy Smikrines is ridiculed and punished, likely through a heavy fine for theft, as suggested by Daos's plan. The play is a light comedy with farcical elements, ensuring a happy ending for the protagonists.18
Misoumenos (The Man She Hated)
Misoumenos, translated as 'The Man She Hated', is an Ancient Greek comedy by Menander that was once considered lost. Fragments of more than 400 verses of the play have been found, though most are seriously damaged, making a complete reconstruction challenging.19
Setting: The setting of the play is not entirely clear, though it may be Athens. The action involves characters arriving from Cyprus, where Thrasonides has recently been fighting.20
Main Characters:
Thrasonides: A mercenary soldier, the titular "hated man," who has acquired Krateia by conquest and fallen in love with her.19
Krateia: A young woman, initially a captive slave, loved by Thrasonides but who persistently hates him.19
Getas: Thrasonides's servant, who expresses concern for his master's unrequited love.19
Demeas: Krateia's father, who arrives in Athens searching for his daughter.19
Kleinias: Thrasonides's neighbor, in whose house Demeas stays.19
Krateia's Brother: His survival is revealed late in the play.19
Core Conflict: The central conflict revolves around the unrequited love of Thrasonides, a mercenary soldier, for Krateia, a young woman he acquired by conquest. Despite his efforts to win her affection, including granting her freedom and lavishing her with gifts, Krateia persists in hating him, withholding the cause for her feelings.19 This situation leads Thrasonides to despair, even contemplating suicide.20
Plot Progression:
Act 1: The play begins with Thrasonides's unrequited love for Krateia. He has bought her as a slave but does not wish to take her by force, instead granting her freedom and presents. Despite his gestures, she does not reciprocate his love. Thrasonides expresses his despair, even invoking the Night and staying outside his own house. His servant, Getas, attempts to persuade him to go inside, expressing concern for his master's state. Fragments suggest Thrasonides's boasting of his exploits may have turned Krateia against him.19
Act 2 (Fragments): This act contains very fragmentary lines, but indications suggest a conversation between Thrasonides and Getas, and another between an old woman (possibly Kleinias's servant) and a "stranger," presumably Demeas, Krateia's father. Demeas had come to the city for an unrelated purpose but discovers that a girl named Krateia is living next door. He apparently asks to see her to determine if she is his daughter.20
Act 3 (Fragments): This act begins with a conversation, possibly between servants, one of whom may be Krateia's nurse. The dialogue hints at Thrasonides's miserable life due to Krateia's rejection.20
Later Developments: Krateia eventually reunites with her father, Demeas, who has arrived in Athens in search of his daughter and is staying with Thrasonides's neighbor, Kleinias. Thrasonides, fearful of Demeas's judgment, prepares to meet him, worried that Demeas will not approve of his relationship with Krateia and that his life will be ruined. Krateia remains hostile to her lover, even in her father's presence.19
Resolution: The turning point arrives when Krateia finally learns that her brother is alive. Overjoyed by this news, Krateia expresses her desire to marry Thrasonides, indicating that her previous hatred was perhaps linked to her family's fate or her status. Demeas formally gives his daughter to Thrasonides for marriage, along with a dowry. He then celebrates his good fortune and invites everyone to a wedding feast, concluding the play with reconciliation and a happy union.19
Sikyonios (The Man from Sikyon)
Sikyonios, or 'The Man from Sikyon', is a partially preserved Ancient Greek comedy by Menander, with "over a quarter" of its text surviving, specifically large parts of Acts I, IV, and V.13
Setting: Sikyonios takes place in a street in Attica, probably in the demos of Eleusis, facing the houses of Kichesias and Smikrines, two Athenians whose fortunes have reversed: the once-rich Kichesias has grown poor, and the poor Smikrines has become rich.21
Main Characters:
Stratophanes: A captain of mercenaries, who has recently returned from a successful campaign in Asia Minor. He is searching for a young slave girl he loves.21
Philumene: A young slave girl, kidnapped in childhood, educated like a lady, and loved by Stratophanes. She is later revealed to be Kichesias's daughter.21
Smikrines: An Athenian citizen, Stratophanes's father, who had given him away for adoption.21
Moschion: Smikrines's son and Stratophanes's younger brother, who is also a rival for Philumene's affections.21
Kichesias: An Athenian citizen, Philumene's biological father, who has fallen on hard times.21
Dromon: Kichesias's servant, kidnapped with Philumene.21
Theron: A parasite attached to Stratophanes, who attempts to deceive him.21
Pyrrhias: Stratophanes's servant, who brings crucial information about his master's birth.21
Malthake: Stratophanes's mistress.21
Core Conflict: The play centers on Stratophanes's search for Philumene, a young woman he loves who was formerly in his family's custody but whose status is now uncertain due to a lawsuit. The conflict is complicated by the fact that Philumene is a kidnapped Athenian citizen, and Stratophanes himself is unknowingly adopted from an Athenian family, making their potential marriage problematic until their true identities and relationships are revealed.21
Plot Progression:
Prologue: A divinity delivers the prologue, revealing that twelve years earlier, the four-year-old Philumene, along with her nurse and the slave Dromon, was kidnapped by pirates from her father's estate in Attica and sold to a wealthy Sicyonian named Hegemon.21
Act 1: The action likely begins with a conversation between Theron, a parasite, and Malthake, Stratophanes's mistress, informing the audience about Stratophanes, a mercenary soldier who has returned from Asia Minor. Stratophanes begins his search for Philumene, the young slave girl he loves, who was raised as a lady in his late Sicyonian father's custody. Her fate is uncertain due to a lost lawsuit, and her ownership is claimed by a Boeotian plaintiff.21
When Philumene takes refuge in a temple at Eleusis, the old slave accompanying her claims she is an Athenian, and a young man, Moschion, offers himself as her protector. Stratophanes then declares she belonged to his family and implores the Eleusinian assembly for time to prove she is an Athenian, which would save her from the Boeotian but prevent him from marrying her as a Sicyonian.21
Act 3 (Toward the end): Stratophanes's slave Pyrrhias reports his mother's dying words, revealing that Stratophanes was adopted from an Athenian family. Pyrrhias also brings documents proving his master's true birth. Stratophanes exclaims his belief that he too is an Athenian citizen and expresses hope that if Philumene is also proven Athenian, he can marry her.21 Stratophanes then instructs Theron to search for Philumene's father, and Theron attempts to cheat him by paying the poor Kichesias to falsely claim paternity.21
However, Philumene's slave Dromon arrives to confirm that Kichesias is indeed the girl's true father.21
Act 5: Stratophanes confronts Smikrines and his son Moschion, who has been his rival for Philumene. At the end of their quarrel, when proof of Stratophanes's Athenian birth is produced, the family recognizes that he is actually Moschion's elder brother, given away to the Sicyonians by his father Smikrines years ago.21
Resolution: The play culminates in multiple revelations of identity, leading to the proper familial reunions and the resolution of the romantic entanglements. Stratophanes, now revealed as an Athenian citizen and Moschion's brother, is able to marry Philumene, who is also an Athenian citizen and Kichesias's daughter. The play concludes with the restoration of social and familial order, a hallmark of Menander's New Comedy.21
Dis Exapaton (Twice a Swindler)
Dis Exapaton, translated as 'Twice a Swindler', is a Menander play of which only "a quarter" of the text survives, with parts of Acts I, III, IV, and a little of V.13 Its plot is primarily known through Plautus's Latin adaptation, Bacchides, which provides significant context and detail.13
Setting: The play is set in Athens, featuring the houses of the main characters, including two courtesans.22
Main Characters (based on Menander and Plautus's adaptation):
Sostratos (Plautus's Pistoclerus): A young man of Athens, in love with one of the Bacchis sisters.22
Moschos (Plautus's Mnesilochus): Son of Nicobulus, also a young man of Athens, who falls in love with the other Bacchis sister.22
Syros (Plautus's Chrysalus): A cunning slave, instrumental in the deceptions.22
Nicobulus: An old man of Athens, Moschos's father, who is repeatedly tricked.22
Philoxenus: An old man of Athens, Sostratos's father.22
Bacchis 1 & Bacchis 2: Twin courtesans, one from Athens, the other arriving from Samos, central to the romantic entanglements and deceptions.22
Cleomachus: A soldier who has hired one of the Bacchis sisters.22
Core Conflict: The play revolves around two young men, Moschos and Sostratos, and their romantic entanglements with two twin courtesans, both named Bacchis. The primary conflict arises from financial obstacles to their relationships and the need to deceive their fathers to secure money, leading to a series of elaborate tricks orchestrated by the cunning slave Syros.23
Plot Progression (largely reconstructed from Plautus's Bacchides):
Moschos is abroad in Ephesus, collecting a debt for his father, Nicobulus, when he falls in love with a courtesan named Bacchis (Bacchis 1). However, this Bacchis is taken against her will to Athens by a soldier who has hired her services.23
Moschos's friend, Sostratos, who was instructed to look for Bacchis in Athens, mistakenly falls in love with Bacchis's twin sister (Bacchis 2), who has also arrived in Athens.23
When Moschos and his cunning slave Syros return home, Syros devises a plan to deceive Moschos's father, Nicobulus. Syros tricks Nicobulus into believing that part of the money collected in Ephesus is still there, allowing Moschos to keep some funds to pay for Bacchis 1's release from her contract with the soldier.23
However, a complication arises when Moschos mistakenly hears that Sostratos has acquired a girlfriend also named Bacchis. In a fit of anger and misunderstanding, Moschos gives all the money to his father, keeping none for himself.23
Too late, Moschos learns from Sostratos that there are two Bacchises. Distressed, he begs Syros to play another trick on his father to retrieve the money he needs.23
Syros orchestrates further deceptions, including persuading Nicobulus to pay a significant sum to prevent his son from committing perjury.23
Later, Nicobulus meets the soldier and learns that Bacchis is merely a courtesan who owed the soldier money, exposing the deception. Furious, Nicobulus and Sostratos's father, Philoxenus, go to the Bacchis sisters' house to confront their sons.23
Resolution: The play concludes with the two Bacchis sisters charming and seducing the old men, Nicobulus and Philoxenus, persuading them to join the party and enjoy themselves.23 This resolution, typical of New Comedy, involves the triumph of the young lovers and clever slaves, often at the expense of the older, more rigid characters, and culminates in a festive, albeit morally ambiguous, reconciliation.
IV. Conclusions
Menander's comedies represent a pivotal shift in Greek drama, moving from the overtly political and satirical nature of Old Comedy to a focus on the domestic, the personal, and the universally human. Despite the challenge of textual preservation, with only Dyskolos surviving nearly intact and others in substantial fragments, scholarly reconstruction allows for a profound appreciation of his artistry.
His work is characterized by intricate plots, often initiated by serious events like rape or presumed death, which are then skillfully navigated through comedic devices such as mistaken identity, recognition scenes (often involving tokens), and the ingenuity of cunning slaves. Menander's genius lies not merely in creating humorous situations but in imbuing his stock characters—from the misanthropic father to the boastful soldier and the complex courtesan—with psychological depth and the capacity for moral evolution. This nuanced approach allowed his plays to offer "compassionate treatment of human problems" and explore themes of love, family, social status, and reconciliation, reflecting the changing societal landscape of Hellenistic Athens.
The apparent paradox of Menander's limited success during his lifetime versus his enduring influence on Roman and subsequent European comedy underscores the timeless quality of his dramatic innovations. His ability to craft realistic dialogue, integrate offstage action, and use divine prologues as moral framing devices contributed to a form of comedy that resonated across centuries. Ultimately, Menander's plays, even in their fragmented state, provide invaluable insights into ancient Athenian society and continue to shape the conventions of comedic storytelling to this day.
Works cited
Menander's Dyskolos Study Guide | Department of Greek & Latin ..., accessed on June 8, 2025, https://www.ucl.ac.uk/classics/classical-play/past-productions/2016-menander-dyskolos/menanders-dyskolos-study-guide
Menander | Ancient Greek Comedian & Playwright | Britannica, accessed on June 8, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Menander-Greek-dramatist
The Transition to New Comedy | Greek and Roman Comedy Class Notes - Fiveable, accessed on June 8, 2025, https://library.fiveable.me/greek-roman-comedy/unit-5
Life and works of Menander | Greek and Roman Comedy Class Notes - Fiveable, accessed on June 8, 2025, https://library.fiveable.me/greek-roman-comedy/unit-6/life-works-menander/study-guide/H3Oz4rWocP70oFDo
Menander - Oxford Reference, accessed on June 8, 2025, https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100149778
Menander (dramatist) | EBSCO Research Starters, accessed on June 8, 2025, https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/menander-dramatist
The Road to Menander: a Study of Political, Literary and Social Influences on his Plays, accessed on June 8, 2025, https://ir.wgtn.ac.nz/items/d2272fcc-e905-4e7d-84bc-2d57d3a1c14a
Simultaneity in the Plays of Menander - Etudes, accessed on June 8, 2025, http://www.etudesonline.com/uploads/2/9/7/7/29773929/etudesdec2019brown.pdf
New Comedy | Aristophanes, Menander & Athenian - Britannica, accessed on June 8, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/art/New-Comedy
New Comedy: Menander and domestic themes | Classical Poetics Class Notes - Fiveable, accessed on June 8, 2025, https://library.fiveable.me/classical-poetics/unit-5/comedy-menander-domestic-themes/study-guide/FVyc3tnxWvXmfla5
Menander Comedies: Analysis & Characters - Vaia, accessed on June 8, 2025, https://www.vaia.com/en-us/explanations/greek/greek-literature/menander-comedies/
W&M researcher tracks ancient Greek comic poet's influence on modern sitcoms, accessed on June 8, 2025, https://news.wm.edu/2023/02/28/wm-researcher-tracks-ancient-greek-comic-poets-influence-on-modern-sitcoms/
Menander's Plays (List) | PDF | Art | History - Scribd, accessed on June 8, 2025, https://www.scribd.com/document/320864836/Menander-s-Plays-List
The Arbitration by Menander | EBSCO Research Starters, accessed on June 8, 2025, https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/literature-and-writing/arbitration-menander
THE PLOT of EPITREPONTES | Dickinson College Commentaries, accessed on June 8, 2025, https://dcc.dickinson.edu/menander-epitrepontes/intro/plot
Perikeiromene - Wikipedia, accessed on June 8, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perikeiromene
Notes on the Samia - Great Books Guy, accessed on June 8, 2025, https://greatbooksguy.com/2020/04/19/notes-on-the-samia/
Menander's Aspis, accessed on June 8, 2025, https://grbs.library.duke.edu/index.php/grbs/article/download/9901/4443/0
Misoumenos - Wikipedia, accessed on June 8, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoumenos
The Man She Hated - [Misoumenos], accessed on June 8, 2025, https://www.usu.edu/markdamen/ClasDram/menander/misoumenos.pdf
Sikyonioi - Wikipedia, accessed on June 8, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikyonioi
Menander: Dis Exapaton & Plautus: Bacchides - translation - ATTALUS, accessed on June 8, 2025, http://attalus.org/poetry/dis_exapaton.html
Bacchides (play) - Wikipedia, accessed on June 8, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacchides_(play)
Menander and New Comedy | Greek and Roman Comedy Class Notes - Fiveable, accessed on June 8, 2025, https://library.fiveable.me/greek-roman-comedy/unit-6
Dyskolos - Wikipedia, accessed on June 8, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyskolos
Roman Versions of Menander's Plays
The Roman versions of Menander's plays come primarily through adaptations made by Roman playwrights, most notably Plautus and Terence, during the Roman Republic. Menander (c. 342/41–c. 290 BC) was a Greek playwright known for his New Comedy style—character-driven plots focusing on domestic life and romantic entanglements, with stock characters like the clever slave, braggart soldier, and miserly father.
Key Roman Adaptations of Menander:
Terence (Publius Terentius Afer)
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Lived in the 2nd century BCE.
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Terence explicitly based many of his plays on Menander’s originals (and sometimes blended multiple Greek plays into one).
| Terence Play | Based on Menander? | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Andria (The Girl from Andros) | Yes | Based on Andria by Menander. |
| Eunuchus (The Eunuch) | Yes | Adapted from two of Menander’s plays, including Eunouchos. |
| Heauton Timorumenos (The Self-Tormentor) | Yes | Based on Menander’s play of the same name. |
| Phormio | Yes | Based on Menander’s Phormion. |
| Adelphoe (The Brothers) | Yes | Combines elements from Menander’s Adelphoi and Synapothneskontes. |
| Hecyra (The Mother-in-Law) | Yes | Also inspired by Menander, though possibly reworked heavily. |
Plautus (Titus Maccius Plautus)
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Also adapted Greek New Comedy, but with more slapstick and Roman local color.
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Though less faithful to Menander than Terence, he adapted plays from Menander and other Greek playwrights like Diphilus and Philemon.
| Plautus Play | Possibly from Menander? | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Bacchides | Possibly | Likely based on a Menander play or inspired by his themes. |
| Casina | Possibly | Based on Kleroumenoi by Menander. |
| Cistellaria | Possibly | Loosely inspired by Menander. |
| Stichus | Possibly | A closer adaptation, perhaps from Adelphoi or another lost Menandrian work. |
Surviving Menander Plays and Fragments
Menander’s works were mostly lost in the West until parts were rediscovered in the 20th century (e.g., the Dyskolos in 1957). Key plays recovered include:
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Dyskolos (The Grouch) – Complete
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Samia (The Girl from Samos) – Substantial fragments
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Aspis (The Shield) – Partial
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Perikeiromene (The Girl with Her Hair Cut Short) – Partial
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Epitrepontes (The Arbitration) – Partial
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Sikyonioi (The Sicyonian) – Partial
Summary
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Terence provides the most direct Roman links to Menander—he openly credits and translates/adapts Menander’s works.
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Plautus borrows more loosely, often reshaping the material with Roman flair and humor.
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Menander’s themes, characters, and plots heavily influenced Roman comedy and later Western literature, even though many of his works survive only in fragments.
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