Οἰδίπους Τύραννος (Oidipous Tyrannos), Latin: Oedipus Tyrranus or Oedipus Rex), or Oedipus the King, is a play written by Sophocles in 429 BC.
A Structuralist's View of Oedipus Rex [ChatGPT's point of View]
Structuralist analysis, rooted in the theories of Ferdinand de Saussure and further developed by Claude Lévi-Strauss, focuses on uncovering the underlying structures that shape a text, rather than interpreting its content or themes directly. In the case of Sophocles' "Oedipus Rex," a structuralist approach would involve examining the binary oppositions, myths, and cultural codes that constitute the narrative. Here's a detailed structuralist analysis of "Oedipus Rex":
### Binary Oppositions
Structuralist analysis often identifies binary oppositions, which are pairs of contrasting concepts that drive the narrative forward. In "Oedipus Rex," several key binary oppositions can be identified:
1. **Knowledge vs. Ignorance**: The tension between knowledge and ignorance is central to the play. Oedipus seeks the truth about his origins and the murder of Laius, but his journey from ignorance to knowledge leads to tragic self-discovery.
2. **Sight vs. Blindness**: Physical sight and insight (or the lack thereof) serve as crucial oppositions. Oedipus is physically sighted but blind to his true identity and fate, whereas Tiresias, the blind prophet, sees the truth.
3. **Fate vs. Free Will**: The interplay between fate and free will is a fundamental opposition. Oedipus attempts to exert his free will to avoid his prophesied fate, but ultimately, he cannot escape the destiny preordained by the gods.
4. **Public vs. Private**: The play contrasts the public roles and responsibilities of Oedipus as king with his private identity and family relations, highlighting the conflict between public duty and private knowledge.
### Mythic Structures
Claude Lévi-Strauss argued that myths across cultures share common structures and serve similar functions. "Oedipus Rex" can be seen as part of a larger mythic structure dealing with themes of incest, patricide, and the human relationship with destiny.
1. **The Hero's Journey**: Oedipus's journey mirrors the archetypal hero's journey. He starts with a noble purpose (to save Thebes from the plague), faces trials and revelations, and ends with a fall from grace.
2. **Rites of Passage**: The play encompasses key rites of passage, such as separation (Oedipus leaving Corinth), initiation (solving the riddle of the Sphinx and discovering his true identity), and return (his downfall and exile).
3. **Sacred Kingship**: The theme of the sacred king, whose well-being is linked to the land, is evident. Oedipus's downfall is necessary to purify Thebes and restore order.
### Cultural Codes and Symbols
Structuralists also analyze cultural codes and symbols that recur within a text. In "Oedipus Rex," several symbols are noteworthy:
1. **The Crossroads**: The crossroads where Oedipus kills Laius symbolize fate and the choices that lead to one's destiny, embodying the intersection of free will and predetermined destiny.
2. **Plague**: The plague in Thebes represents not just physical disease but also moral and political corruption that must be cleansed.
3. **Eyes and Vision**: Eyes and vision symbolize knowledge and insight. Oedipus's self-blinding at the end signifies his transition from ignorance to painful knowledge.
### Deep Structures
Lévi-Strauss emphasized the deep structures underlying myths and stories. In "Oedipus Rex," these structures involve:
1. **Familial Relationships**: The deep structure revolves around complex familial ties and transgressions, including incest (Oedipus's relationship with Jocasta) and patricide (killing Laius).
2. **Divine Justice**: The narrative reflects the structure of divine justice, where human actions, regardless of intent, align with divine prophecy and cosmic order.
3. **Human vs. Divine Knowledge**: The play juxtaposes human knowledge with divine omniscience, showing the limitations of human understanding against the backdrop of divine will.
### Conclusion
By focusing on these structural elements, a structuralist analysis of "Oedipus Rex" reveals the underlying patterns and oppositions that shape the narrative. This approach moves beyond the surface content to explore the fundamental structures that govern human experience and storytelling.
Argument
Laios, King of Thebes, married Jocasta, daughter of Menœkeus, and they had no child. And he, grieved thereat, sought counsel of the God at Delphi, and the God bade him cease to wish for children, for should a son be born to him, by that son he should surely die. And then it came to Pass that Jocasta bare him a son. And they, fearing the God's word, gave the boy to a shepherd, that he might cast it out upon the hill Kithæron: and so they were comforted, and deemed that they by this device had turned the oracle into a thing of nought. And thirty years afterwards, when Laios was well stricken in years, he went again on a pilgrimage to Delphi; and thence he never came back again,—slain on the way, men knew not by whose hands. And at that time the Sphinx made havoc of Thebes and all the coasts thereof so that they had no heart nor power to search into the matter of the king's death, but sought only for some one to answer the monster's riddle, and save the city and its people. And a stranger came to the city, Œdipus of Corinth, son, as it was said, of Polybos and Merope, and answered the riddle aright, and slew the Sphinx. And then the people of the city in their joy chose Œdipus as their king, in the room of Laios, who had been slain; and Jocasta took him as her husband, and Creon, Jocasta's brother, was his chief friend and counsellor, and all things prospered with him, and he had two sons and two daughters. But soon the wrath of God fell upon Thebes, and the city was visited with a sore pestilence; and the people turned in their affliction to their Gods, and made their supplications.
Alternative Argument
To Laius, King of Thebes, an oracle foretold that the child born to him by his queen Jocasta would slay his father and wed his mother. So when in time a son was born the infant's feet were riveted together and he was left to die on Mount Cithaeron. But a shepherd found the babe and tended him, and delivered him to another shepherd who took him to his master, the King of Corinth. Polybus being childless adopted the boy, who grew up believing that he was indeed Polybus' son. Afterwards doubting his parentage he inquired of the Delphic god and heard himself the prophesy declared before to Laius. Therefore he fled from what he deemed his father's house and in his flight he encountered and unwillingly slew his father Laius. Arriving at Thebes he answered the riddle of the Sphinx and the grateful Thebans made their saviour king. So he reigned in the city of Laius, and married the widowed queen. Children were born to them and Thebes prospered under his rule, until again a grievous plague fell upon the city. Again the oracle was consulted and it bade them purge themselves of blood-guilt. Oedipus denounces the crime of which he is unaware, and undertakes to track down the criminal. Step by step it is brought home to him that he is the man. The closing scene reveals Jocasta slain by her own hand and Oedipus blinded by his own act and praying for death or exile.
The Myth of the Sphinx:
In the story of Oedipus, the goddess Hera sent the Sphinx to plague the people of the ancient city of Thebes. This was punishment for an ancient crime, possibly for the failure to atone for the crimes of a former king of Thebes. The Sphinx sat perched on a mountain cliff nearby the ancient city. The creature guarded Thebes with a riddle that she had learned from the Muses. Each time a traveller failed to solve her riddle, she devoured them, effectively preventing anyone from leaving or entering the city.
Sphinx's riddle:
What goes on four feet in the morning, two feet at noon, and three feet in the evening?
Oedipus' answer:
A person: As a baby in the morning of their life crawls on four feet (hands and knees). As an adult in the noon of their life, they walk on two feet. But when they are old, in the evening of their life, they walk with a cane, on three feet.
This was correct and the Sphinx killed herself.
Creon was raised to the throne upon the death of Laius, though he afterwards voluntarily resigned the crown in favour of the destroyer of the Sphinx, and deliverer of his country, namely Oedipus.
Dramatis Personae
Oedipus [King of Thebes]
Priest of Zeus
Creon [Brother of Iocasta, brother-in-law of Oedipus, uncle of Antigone and Ismene]
Iocasta [Oedipus' mother and wife, Queen of Thebes; mother of Oedipus' children]
First Messenger (from the house)
Servant of Laïus
Tereisias [a seer, prophet of Apollo in Thebes]
Messenger from Corinth [an old man formerly a shepherd]
A Herdsman from Thebes [an old man]
2nd Messenger [slave in royal palace]
Chorus of Elders from Thebes
Silent Parts:
Crowd of Theban Children as suppliants
Antigone and Ismene [daughters of Oedipus]
Probable allocation of parts
Protagonist: Oedipus.
Deuteragonist: Priest of Zeus, Jocasta, The Shepherd, Second Messenger.
Tritagonist: Creon, Teiresias, First Messenger.
Setting:
The Skene is the Royal Palace at Thebes. To the right of the stage by the altar of a shrine stands a Priest of Zeus and a Crowd of Theban Children who are gathered as suppliants sitting on its steps. They are each are bearing a suppliant branch [generally an olive branch wrapped in tufts of wool].
Summary
Prologue (πρόλογος) [Lines 1-150]
The city of Thebes is suffering from a mysterious and severe plague.
Oedipus, the king, steps out of his palace to greet the Crowd and to listen to their concerns.
He is told the reason for the plague is the unsolved mystery of the death of the city's previous sovereign, King Laius.
Oedipus has entered to meet with the deputation of Theban children who have come with their Priest in supplication each bearing a suppliant branches concerning a dreadful and devastating plague which has struck Thebes.
Oedipus speaks. He demands to know about their concerns. Oedipus addresses the Crowd of Children. He asks why they have come and why the air of the city is so full of incense, and why is it so full of prayers and wailing. He calls on the Priest of Zeus to tell him what is wrong and invites him to speak on their behalf, to explain what they seek.
The Priest of Zeus explains to Oedipus that they are seeking his help. Oedipus has saved them before from the Sphinx's tyranny: he solved the Sphinx's riddle and banished the plague which was afflicting Thebes then. Now the city is wasting away from another plague and unknown disease. All the people are carrying suppliant branches. Oedipus is told that Creon has just returned from Delphi where he enquired from the oracle the cause of the plague
[A real epidemic had struck Athens in 430 BC. The plague mentioned in the Oedipus Tyrannus is not only a disease which attacks the people, it also includes a blight upon the crops, the death of cattle, and the pangs of the women aborting their unborn babies. These three features were common to the supernatural descriptions of the afflictions of the time and were also used the regular formulations of curses.]
Creon enters. He tell all those assembled that he brings good news from the oracle. The oracle has said that the cause of the plague is known. There is a long standing pollution in the midst of the city and that it needs to be expelled. Someone has brought down this pollution upon the city and they need to be killed or sent into exile.
Oedipus asks, "Who is that man?"
Creon answers, "The reason for the plague is the unsolved mystery surrounding the death of the city's previous sovereign, King Laius. Apollo has spoken and has said that the city needs to avenge his murder; that the murderer must be found."
Oedipus then begins to question Creon about the murder of Laius, "Where was he killed? Was it in the palace here, or in the country? What were the circumstances?
Creon tells Oedipus that Laius was on a journey to consult with the oracle at Delphi, but that he never returned home from it. All his companions died except for one man who could tell the elders of Thebes nothing. That man said Laius and his companions had met with brigands along the way, and that the brigands had killed Laius.
Oedipus responds that brigands would not dare to do this and this man may have been bribed by some conspirators in the City of Thebes. Creon answers that there was speculation that this might have been the case, but they were leaderless, besides the Sphinx was the main issue at the time and Laius, himself, was out-of-sight and out-of-mind.
Ironically, Oedipus promises the Crowd personally to provide relief from the plague and all the evils that have beset Thebes. His anger rises and he proclaims a curse on the murderer of King Laius and declares that anyone found hiding the murderer would be cast into exile; and would be denied all religious succour (prayer and sacrifice) and would be damned forever. It is the murderer of Laius who is polluting the city.
Oedipus orders Thebes' Council of Elders to be summoned.
Exeunt Creon, the Priest and the Crowd of Theban Children; and Oedipus.
[Some translations have Oedipus remaining on stage, with the Chorus already in the Orchestra]
Parodos (πάροδος) [Lines 151-215]
The Chorus of the Elders of Thebes file into the Orchestra chanting an ode, a prayer to many gods.
Their ode and prayer is to Apollo Paean, Healer of Delos: it speculates on the meaning of the oracle sent to Thebes by the Golden Shrine of Delphi. What does Apollo's oracle have to tell them?
The Chorus then call upon a trinity of gods [Athena, Apollo Phoebus and Artemis] to protect the city from the plague. The people of the city are suffering. They are sick and dying. The land of Thebes is also dying: nothing grows. The women are giving birth to stillborn babies. The souls of the dead are like birds of omen which swiftly rise like a raging fire flying off to the shores of the lord of darkness.
They are unable to count the dead whose bodies are lying everywhere on the ground unburied and unlamented, infecting the air with a deadly pollution. Women from all quarters of the city are going to the shrines in the city in supplication and lifting up their voices in prayer. They are calling upon Apollo to raise his bow and shoot down Ares [the savage god of war], whom they blame for the plague. They are calling upon Zeus to cast down his thunderbolts on Ares. Finally they raise a prayer invoking Dionysos to drive Ares away from the city using a flaming torch and to loose his Maenads upon him.
First Episode (επεισόδιον πρώτον) [Lines 216-462]
Enter Oedipus.
He addresses the Chorus of Elders. He tells them to pay attention and listen to what he going to say if they want Thebes to be rid of the sickness plaguing their city. He says he going to relate the story as if he were a stranger to their City, a stranger to what happened. He says that he now wants to know if any one of them knows who killed Laius. He orders that person to speak out, and to tell him everything that he knows. He promises no harm would come to him, but that he would have to leave the city and go into exile. Was the person who killed Laius a foreigner? He promises to reward any one who speaks out, and that they would win his gratitude. But if they remain silent they are to listen to what he will do. He then delivers an edict in the form of a curse :
Oedipus: I forbid anyone subject to my jurisdiction receive this man into your home, whoever he is; or to speak to him; or allow him to join in prayers to the gods, or in the sacrificial rites. You are forbidden to give him water for purification. You are ordered to drive him from your homes, all of you, for he is polluting the City, as Apollo from his seat in Delphi has declared and has now made plain to me.
I will fight as King Laius's ally and pray and declare that whoever killed him, whether he acted alone or in a conspiracy, may he live out the remainder of his life in abject misery. And if this man shares my household then may I suffer the same curse I have laid on others.
I charge you all to observe all of this edict, for me, for the god, and for this land which now lies barren and deserted by the gods. It was wrong to leave this crime unpurged for so long, for it was your king who died, a noble man. An investigation should have been set up to find his murderer and it is I now who hold the authority, as he once did, who commands it goes into action. I sleep and sow my seed where he once did. My children would share a mother with his had he not had the misfortune to have none. As it is fate stuck him down. I shall be fighting for him as if he were my own father. I shall leave no stone unturned in seeking out the author of his murder of this son of Labdacus who can trace his line back through Polydorus and Cadmus to Agenor of old.
If any of you disobey my order I pray that the gods make your land lie infertile and your wives barren, that they perish by the same disease which plagues us now.
People of Cadmus, all of you who find my words acceptable, may Justice be your ally and may the gods be with you always.
The Chorus then declare that they don't know who killed King Laius and that it is for Apollo to say who did it. Oedipus then says that you cannot force the gods to act against their will. The Chorus suggest Teiresias, the seer, should be summoned. He ought to know. Oedipus tells them that he has already given orders twice for Teiresias to be summoned. The Chorus then say that the old stories tell them nothing, that King Laius only seems to have been killed by travellers, but no one actually saw who did it. But that if anyone does know the curse and edict that Oedipus has announced ought soon to bring someone forward if they are fearful. However, Teiresias ought to be the one to know for he carries the living truth within him.
Chorus: Here comes the man to expose the villain.
[300] Enter Teiresias [the blind Seer and priest of Apollo] led by a young boy.
Oedipus: Come, O mystic Teiresias, you know everything. You may be blind but your mind's eye can see everything. You know all things that are knowable, even those which are unteachable. You can feel the truth: you have understanding. Tell us what you know.
Oedipus then asks Teiresias if he knows who killed King Laius and tells him that until that person or those persons are found and sent into exile he cannot deliver Thebes from the plague.
Teiresias says he knows who did it, and knew it long ago, but has from that time put it from his mind remaining silent ever since, wisdom bringing no advantage in this case.
Teiresias: Let me go home. It will be easier for us both to bear our burdens if you do as I say.
Oedipus: Witholding information? That's not very friendly to the City which has nurtured you!
Teiresias: I see that your words are not well-aimed. I am trying to avoid the same mistake.
Oedipus: For heaven's sake, we beg you not to turn away, if you have any knowledge please be to tell us.
Teiresias: You all lack understanding. I will not bring to light my troubles rather than call them yours.
Oedipus: Meaning that you would rather let the City rot?
Teiresias: Stop wasting your time. I will tell you nothing.
Oedipus: What villain, nothing? You would drive a stone to fury.
Teiresias: You blame my temper, but fail to see your own.
Oedipus: With words like this you shame our City.
Teiresias: Of themselves things will come to be made known even though I hide them.
Oedipus: If they will come to be known then speak.
Teiresias: I will just let your temper rage and say no more.
Oedipus: Indeed I am so mad with you. Had you eyes I would accuse you of having plotted the murder, and done the deed.
Teiresias: Then I warn you to hold to the letter of your proclamation, your curse, that from this day forward you are not speak to the people of this City, nor to me, for it is you who are the rotting canker in the land.
Oedipus then goes on to ask Teiresias how does he expect to escape having taunted and been totally insolent to the king [lèse majesté]. Teiresias replies to him that the truth will keep him safe.
Teiresias: My strength lies in the truth.
Oedipus: Who taught you this? Not your prophetic skill!
Teiresias: From you. You coerced me to speak against my will.
Oedipus: Tell me again what you said.
Teiresias: You are the murderer that you are seeking.
Oedipus: Do you think you can escape punishment for the vicious slander you have uttered?
Teiresias: I say it once again: you are living a life of shame.
Oedipus: Truth has strength, but you have none, for you are blind in your ears, eyes and your mind. You will never harm me or anyone who can see the light of day.
Teiresias: Fool, this abuse you hurl at me will soon be thrown back at you. You will not fall because of me. This is in the hands of Apollo and he has the power.
Oedipus: Is Creon behind all this? Did he put you up to this?
Oedipus then delivers a short speech describing how thinks Creon, once a trusted friend, has betrayed him, envious of his power and wanting to usurp the throne. He thinks Creon has bought Teiresias, whom he describes him as a swindling sorcerer, and nothing but a money-grubbing trickster having a good eye for gain, but blind when it comes to prophecy. He asks Teiresias how is it that when the monstrous "Singing Bitch" [The Sphinx] was here in Thebes he did nothing to set the citizens of Thebes free from her power. Surely a seer could solve her riddle?
Oedipus: You foresaw nothing; you showed no understanding. Your auguries revealed nothing. Yet I, ignorant Oedipus, came along. I solved her riddle. I did not need the entrails of sacrificed birds. You are trying to throw me out, thinking Creon will give you pride of place next to him when he is sitting on the throne. You will come to regret your attempted purge
The Chorus intercedes. Both sides had spoken in anger. They say they need to interpret the words of the prophet first.
Teiresias remarks that he has an equal right to be heard as the king has. He is not the king's slave but Apollo's; and he is not Creon's paid lackey. He says that he may be blind and the king have eyes, but that the king cannot see the danger he is in. He asks whether the king knows whose son he really is. He declares him to be the bane of his family, both to those who are dead and those alive on earth. He is the curse of both his father and mother and that one day he will be driven from the land.
Teiresias: The murderer of Laius is here, not as an alien but, in truth, as a homeborn Theban. I bring no delight to him, blind as I am, and I, who use a staff, the discovery I bring and have seen. He will, as a blind beggar, soon be wandering poor, and feeling his way across a strange land he shall go. His change of circumstance will bring no joy to him. To his sons he shall be as both father and brother, and to her, she who bore him as husband and son, sharing his father's bed, he his father's murderer. Go and brood over this. If I am wrong then say my skill of prophecy is gone.
Exeunt separately, Teiresias and the young boy to the side, and Oedipus into the palace.
First Stasimon (στάσιμον πρώτον) [Lines 463-512]
The Chorus are alone in the orchestra.
The Nemesis Ode
The Chorus chant about the revelations of Teiresias they have just listened to in the preceding episode. The Chorus have a conviction, a feeling that the unknown murderer of Laius is doomed. However, they refuse to believe that the unproven charge made by the Teiresias against Oedipus is true. The Chorus sing of their bewilderment with the seer's prophecy. Although they know that Apollo and Zeus are all-knowing and can see everything that humans do, they are now unsure how a mere mortal can serve as a prophet like Teiresias who has accused the very man who was the saviour of the city and its people. The Chorus says they will take sides with Oedipus no matter what he has done because he rid Thebes of the tyranny of the Sphinx. But the Chorus is also aware that Teiresias' prophecy could be true.
Second Episode (επεισόδιον δεύτερον) [Lines 513-862]
Part I [513-648]
Enter Creon
He says he has heard terrible words said about him by Oedipus, that he has come here because he can no longer bear it. That if Oedipus thinks he can slander him and call him traitor in his own City then this is no trifling matter. The Chorus respond to him saying these accusations may have been made in anger. Creon asks them then why did he say it.
Enter Oedipus
Oedipus [to Creon]: What are you doing here? Why have you come back? How dare you come to my house! You want to kill me and steal my throne. Did you think I did not notice your treachery stealthily creeping up on me? This attempt of yours is foolish: without wealthy friends and money it will fail. They are needed to win the crown.
Creon: Let me answer this charge against me.
Oedipus: You may be a clever speaker but I am a poor listener especially to one so laden with malevolence.
Creon: I will deal with that accusation first.
Oedipus: So you say that you are not a traitor?
Creon: You are not thinking straight.
Oedipus: If you think a brother-in-law can get away with murder and not pay the penalty you're are not thinking at all.
Creon: So what is it I am supposed to have done?
Oedipus: Did you not suggest I send for that holy seer?
Creon: I did!
Oedipus: Then how how long ago did Laius disappear mysteriously?
Creon: I don't see the logic in your reasoning.
Oedipus: Well it seems he fell at the hand of a brigand.
Creon: That happened a long time ago.
Oedipus: Was our seer as wise then as he is now?
Creon: He was, and well respected too.
Oedipus: Did he at any time speak of me?
Creon: Never. At least I did not ever hear him mention you.
Oedipus: And you did nothing to investigate Laius' disappearance and murder?
Creon: How could we? Our search for him was in vain.
Oedipus: And the seer, did he not step forward and all see?
Creon: I cannot answer that. I will remain silent on this point.
Oedipus: This much you do know, for if he had not conspired with you he would not have accused me of Laius' murder.
Creon: If this is what he has said, then I claim the right to ask you questions.
Oedipus: Go ahead. I'll not hold back. I'll never be proved an assassin.
Creon: Are you my sister's husband?
Oedipus: Yes. She is the queen. We rule the land jointly. I grant her every wish.
Creon: Am I not third, equal in rank to both of you?
Oedipus: This is what makes you a faithless friend.
Creon: Well try to reason how I do. Why would I want more, to have the terrors of the throne and sleep uneasily when I have no less power now? I have never desired to be king. It is not necessary to seize the symbols of kingship when I already have the real powers now. Treason was never my bent. I am no lover of that kind of scheming. If you disbelieve me go to Delphi and learn if I have told you the truth about what the oracle said. And if then you find out that I have plotted together with the seer then have me put to death. In time you will be well convinced by what I have said. It only takes a day to detect a traitor, and much much longer to prove the stainless honour of the just.
Chorus: He has spoken well for one who is taking care not to fall. The quick of resolve are never sure-footed.
Oedipus: When one who plots against me is quick then I must think quickly. If I am too slow then he may gain his treacherous ends.
Creon: What will you have done with me? To go into exile?
Oedipus: Heavens no! I want you dead.
Creon: You must first prove the justice of your case to merit such a sentence.
Oedipus: Only a fool would believe such a man.
[634] Enter Jocasta from the palace.
Jocasta: What's all the commotion? Aren't you all ashamed at behaving in a shameful manner in public when the country is suffering such a sickness. Oedipus, go inside. Creon, go home!
Creon: Your husband wants to to banish or kill me.
Oedipus: That's true for I find him plotting against my person.
Creon: By the supreme god may I die accursed if I am found guilty in anyway.
Jocasta: Oedipus, trust him for the sake the oath he has sworn to the god, for my sake and for the people's sake.
Kommos (κομμός) [649-697]
(The actors and Chorus chant a lament, sung in a lyrical metre)
Chorus [to Oedipus]: Do as Jocasta says. Creon has sworn an oath. Respect his word. When a friend has sworn an oath do not dishonour him by throwing unproven charges at him. Be merciful.
Oedipus [to Creon]: Make no mistake: you are seeking death or exile.
Chorus: By the supreme god, death in our land is enough than to hear you two add to our troubles.
Oedipus: Well then, let him go, even if I am to be put to death or cast out of the city in disgrace. Your words, not his, stir me to pity.
Creon: You hate to give in. Your anger goes beyond all limits.
Oedipus: Get out.
Creon: I go, misbelieved by you but safe in these men's judgement.
Exit Creon
Chorus [to Jocasta] Take Oedipus inside the palace.
Jocasta: I want to know what has happened.
Chorus: Words led to ignorant supposition. Injustice followed.
Jocasta: From both?
Chorus: Yes. More than enough was said, and thinking of our land, we feel it's best to let this matter rest.
Chorus: In times past your wisdom guided us when the land was in trouble and adrift. Be our pilot again now.
Part II [698-862]
Jocasta [to Oedipus]: Tell me my lord what has angered you so?
Oedipus: I honour you more than I honour them [the Chorus]. Creon plotted against me.
Jocasta: How?
Oedipus: Creon says I murdered Laius.
Jocasta: On his own or using the information of others?
Oedipus: He sent the Prophet to me keeping himself clean of any guilt.
[707] Jocasta's Story:
Listen to me. Do not concern yourself with prophets. No mortal has the power of prophecy. I'll prove it. An oracle once came to Laius from Apollo himself, saying he would be killed by a child born to us. That would be his fate. But in fact he was killed by robbers, strangers at the place where three roads meet. As for our only child he was but three days old when Laius bound his feet ordering it to be exposed on the trackless mountain [Mount Citharaeon]. Apollo's oracle was not realised. The child was not his father's murderer; Laius was not killed by his son. So pay no attention to the words of seers. Whatever the gods intend they will reveal to us in good time.
Oedipus: I hear you but a turbulence of mind has come upon me.
Jocasta: What troubles you?
Oedipus Did I hear you say Laius was killed at a crossroads?
Jocasta: Yes.
Oedipus: Where was this?
Jocasta: Where the road divides: one to Delphi, the other to Daulia.
Oedipus: When did this happen.
Jocasta: After the news was brought, not long after that you were proclaimed our ruler.
Oedipus: O Zeus, what hast thou willed to do with me?
Jocasta: What has moved you?
Oedipus: Please don't ask me. What size and build did Laius have?
Jocasta: You're frightening me. He was tall with grey hair. About your size.
Oedipus: Woe is me! What dread curse have I laid upon myself?
Jocasta: You are scaring me now.
Oedipus: Tell me how he was travelling: how many companions did he have?
Jocasta: Five men in total including a herald leading the entourage. Laius himself rode in a chariot.
Oedipus: Who told you this?
Jocasta: The only survivor, a slave.
Oedipus: Does he still work in the palace?
Jocasta: No, when he came back, he saw you in his late master's place. He begged me to release him, to let him go away to become a shepherd in the country. I let him go. He could have asked for more for he was a good slave.
Oedipus: Could he be brought here without delay? I fear I may have said too much. I need to interrogate him.
Jocasta: So be it. You shall see him.
[771] Oedipus' Story:
I am from Corinth. My father was Polybus, king of Corinth, my mother Merope, a Dorian. I was considered to be the best of all citizens there until something strange chanced to occur. There was a dinner. During the meal a man who had drunk too much declared I was not my father's son. I restrained my anger. The next day I went to my parents to question them. They were angry too at both the insult and with the man who had uttered it. But the insult continued to spread. It kept on being repeated throughout the city. Without my parent's knowledge I set out for Delphi to learn what I could from the Oracle. But Apollo sent me away in disgrace. He foretold for me a future so horrible and grim, a terrible story. He told me that I was a bastard, that would come to mate and bear children with my mother and murder my father. Upon hearing this I fled Corinth: guided by the stars I aimed to put as much distance as possible between myself and the city.
As I made my way I came to this region, to the land of Phocis to a place where three ways met. There I was met with first a herald and a man like you have described riding in his chariot, drawn by young colts. With undue force they pushed me off the highway. First the driver of the chariot, then the old man riding in the same himself. In rage I struck the driver of the chariot who had turned with his back to me. The old man saw this: then as his chariot passed by me he struck me on my forehead with his driver's double pointed goad, But I was more than his equal. I hit him with my staff which I was holding in my right hand. He fell backwards out of the chariot. Then I slew them all.
Say I am vile. Am I not utterly unclean, a wretch doomed to be banished and in my banishment to forego the sight of all those who I love dearly, my nearest and dearest ones. Never again to tread the soil of my native homeland unless it is to be yoked in marriage to my mother and to kill my father, Polybus, who gave me life. If someone were to declare that a cruel god, some inhuman power has brought these things down upon me, who could fault his judgement? I forbid it that I should ever see that day! May I be blotted from the world of men before I am stained with such a disaster.
Chorus: This frightens us, my lord, but until such time as we learn from the man who was present at Laius' killing there is hope.
Oedipus: My hope is faint, but enough survives to await the arrival of this Herdsman.
Jocasta: Suppose he was here what could you learn from him?
Oedipus: If his tale accords with yours then I escape calamity. You said he escaped from "robbers" and that it was "robbers" who killed the king and not just one man on his own. But if he speaks of just one man then my guilt is proved and I am undone.
Jocasta: Then rest assured, not only did I hear him say "robbers" but all the townsfolk heard him too. Even if his story was to vary somewhat he could never pretend that the death of Laius came about in the manner foretold by the Oracle: to die by his own child's hand, for he, my poor babe, could never have shed any blood, for he perished long ago before all this happened. So much for prophets and their prophecies, I prefer to use my use my own eyes.
Jocasta: I will at once.
Exeunt Jocasta and Oedipus into the palace.
Second Stasimon (στάσιμον δεύτερον) [Lines 863-910]
The Chorus is alone in the orchestra.
This ode deals with the central issue of the play, namely purity and holiness. The Chorus pray that may an evil fate overtake the arrogant and violent man, his hubris, who does not revere the gods. Hubris breeds the tyrant. Why worship the gods at all if those who disrespect religion go unpunished? They pray for his retribution. If behaviour likes this is honoured why should the Chorus continue to dance. No more will they travel to the sacred navel of the world [Delphi] or other centres of oracular wisdom to listen to the oracles unless they are proved true.
Chorus: O Zeus, the old oracles are fading. Your everlasting reign is threatened. Apollo is denied. His glory is growing dim. Mankind no longer worships the gods.
Third Episode (επεισόδιον τρίτον) [Lines 911-1085]
Enter Jocasta and an attendant from the palace.
Jocasta comes out of the palace. She talks to the Chorus addressing them as my lords. She says to them that she wants to visit the altars of Apollo as a suppliant with a garlanded olive branch [Eireisione/Ειρεσιώνη] and gifts of incense, that perhaps by this means Oedipus might calm down and rid his troubled soul from worries. She says she can do nothing for him. She prays to Apollo.
Jocasta: We are all afraid now as the steersman of our ship of state is full of terror. Save us from this curse.
Enter a Messenger from the side.
Jocasta, the audience, the Chorus all think this may be the Herdsman they are expecting, but he is, in fact, a Messenger, an old man, who has come from Corinth.
Jocasta welcomes him. He tells her that he has come seeking Oedipus. He has some important and happy news for him. Blessed is the house in which Oedipus lives. He tells her he has come from Corinth, that king Polybus, his father, is dead and buried and that the people of the City of the Isthmus now want to elect Oedipus as their king in his father's stead. Jocasta tells her attendant to go inside and fetch him, and tell Oedipus the good news brought by the Messenger that the man who according to the oracle he is supposed to kill has died from natural causes. This gives her tremendous hope
Exit Attendant.
[Pause]
Enter Oedipus.
He interrogates the Messenger. The Messenger repeats his news to Oedipus adding that Polybus died from natural causes, old age and an illness were the causes. Oedipus questions him further.
Oedipus then turns to Jocasta and says: So much for oracles. I was supposed to kill my father, now he lies dead in his grave. I never even lifted a finger against him. The oracle remains unfulfilled.
Jocasta: I told you so.
Oedipus: You did, but my fear misled me. But there is still another matter which concerns me. My mother, Merope. She is still alive.
Jocasta: Many a man has dreamt of marrying their mother. You need not fear this. Such things must be forgot if life is to be endured.
Oedipus: If she was dead. But she lives. While she yet lives I am not safe.
Messenger: How does she endanger your life?
Oedipus: Apollo said I was predestined to kill my father and to marry my mother. This is why I fled Corinth long ago and have fared well since.
Messenger: What was the fear that kept you in banishment all this time?
Oedipus: I was determined not to kill my father.
Messenger: Let me put your mind at rest on these matters. Your fears have no grounds.
Oedipus: How so?
Messenger: Polybus was not your father. He was not even kin of yours.
Oedipus: How then was it that I called him "father" and he loved me like a "son"?
Messenger: You were given to him by me. I found you in the woods on Mount Cithaeron, where I was tending sheep there. I rescued you. Your ankles were shackled together by a large rivet. I set you free.
Oedipus: I have suffered from that affliction ever since.
Messenger: That is why you are so-named. [Oedipus = Swollen Feet]
Oedipus: By the gods, did my father or my mother give me that name?
Messenger: I couldn't say.
Oedipus: So it was not you who found me?
Messenger: No, another shepherd put you in my care.
Oedipus: Can you tell me who he was?
Messenger: One of King Laius' men. One of his slaves.
Oedipus: Is he still alive?
Messenger: I don't know. You will have to ask your own people.
Oedipus asks the Chorus if they know who this other shepherd was.
Chorus: It seems he is the one whom you have already asked to see. Ask the Queen.
Oedipus [to Jocasta]: Do you know who the man the Messenger is talking about?
Jocasta: I beg you to forget what you have heard. It can make no difference.
Oedipus: I must continue to seek the truth till I have unravelled the mystery of my birth.
Jocasta: You must not pursue this quest. I have suffered enough.
Oedipus: Why not? Even if I discover myself to be the third descendant in a line of slaves it would make no difference to you. It would not prove you to be base-born.
Jocasta: I implore you not to do this. I have counselled you for the best.
Oedipus [to Jocasta]: These counsels have vexed my patience.
Jocasta: Ill fated one, may you never come to earn who you really are.
Oedipus: Would someone go and bring the Herdsman here, and leave that woman to glory in her royal stock.
Jocasta: Adieu, my poor deluded one, I will never speak to you again forever more.
Jocasta rushes into the palace.
Chorus: What has made the Queen struck dumn and leave in such a hurry? A storm of sorrow will breaking forth from this silence?
Oedipus: Bring on the storm. Be my birth ever so lowly I crave to know the truth. Let my wife proud in her pride think what she likes about my base origin. I am Fortune's child; she is my mother. And the moons, my kin, have observed me as sometimes lowly, sometimes great. Such is my lineage; may I prove faithful to it. Never more can I prove false to it, or avoid the search for the secret of my birth.
Third Stasimon (στάσιμον τρίτον) [Lines 1086-1109]
The Chorus are present in the orchestra. Oedipus and the Messenger have remained on stage.
The Chorus chant an ode of joy foretelling Oedipus will prove to be a native of Thebes, fancifully imagining him to be born on Mount Cithaeron perhaps of divine pedigree. They suppose him to be the child of a mountain nymph and some god, perhaps even Dionysos himself.
Who was your mother? O son! Which dryad? Did Pan sire you? Was he your father? Or was it Apollo? or Hermes? Or even Dionysos himself with one of the nymphs from Mount Helicon.
Fourth Episode (επεισόδιον τέταρτον) [Lines 1110-1185]
The attendants of Oedipus are seen leading a Herdsman from the side towards the stage.
Oedipus: Elders, I think I can see the Herdsman we have sought to bring here coming. Do you recognise him?
Chorus: Indeed we do. He was Laius' loyal slave.
Oedipus [to the Messenger from Corinth]: Is this the man?
Messenger: Yes he is.
Oedipus [to the Herdsman]: Were you once a slave of Laius?
Herdsman: Yes I was. I was his slave, not bought but born and bread in his household.
Oedipus: What work did you do?
Herdsman: I tended his sheep.
Oedipus: In what part of the country did you do this?
Herdsman: Sometimes by Mount Cithaeron, sometimes in the surrounding countryside.
Oedipus [pointing at the Messenger from Corinth]: Have you seen this man before? Did you ever meet him? Have you ever had dealings with him?
Herdsman: I cannot remember ever having done so.
Messenger: Let me try to refresh his memory. When we were tending our flocks on Cithaeron He was my neighbour. I had one flock. He had two. We were together for three seasons, for six months from spring to autumn. In winter I took my flock back home to Corinth and he took his back to Laius' folds. Am I telling it how it was?
Herdsman: Yes, but it was long time ago.
Messenger: Well then, you do remember giving me a child to bring up as my own?
Herdsman: Why are you asking?
Messenger: Well, the man you see standing before you now was that child.
Herdsman: Damn you! Can you not hold your tongue?
Oedipus: Come now, he speaks more honestly than you.
Herdsman: How have I offended?
Oedipus: By not telling the whole truth.
Herdsman: He doesn't know or understand what he is saying.
Oedipus: If you tell us what you know we will make you!
Herdsman: Please don't torture me. I am an old man.
Oedipus: Someone step up and twist his arms behind his back.
Herdsman: For the sake of the gods what are you doing? What more do you want to know?
Oedipus: Did you give him the child he has spoken of?
Herdsman: I did. Would that I have died that day!
Oedipus: So you will now if you don't give me the answers I want.
Herdsman: If you force me to speak it'll be my death.
Oedipus: This man is wasting our time.
Herdsman: No, I am not. Have I not said I gave him that child?
Oedipus: Where did you get the child from?
Herdsman: I would not have done this to my own child. Someone else gave it to me.
Oedipus: Who? Where did it come from?
Herdsman: Pray, don't force me to say.
Oedipus: You will surely die if you don't tell me.
Herdsman: The child, it came from the House of Laius.
Oedipus: Was it a child of a slave child or born of a member of Laius' own family?
Herdsman: I am terrified to say.
Oedipus: As I am of your silence. You must say.
Herdsman: It was his child. But the woman who is your Queen and wife can tell you more of the truth about all this,
Oedipus: She gave it to you?
Herdsman: Yes, Master.
Oedipus: Why?
Herdsman: To do away with it.
Oedipus: Did she give birth to the child?
Herdsman: Yes, Master. They spoke of an evil curse, an oracle.
Oedipus: What curse?
Herdsman: Someone had foretold that this child would grow up to kill his father one day.
Oedipus: Why did you give this child to this man here?
Herdsman: I took pity on it. I thought he would take it far away to his own land. He took it and saved its life. But if you yourself are that child then you are indeed cursed.
Oedipus: O woe! the whole truth has been uncovered. O Light of the Day may I never look upon you again. I have discovered that in my birth I was cursed; I was cursed in my marriage; I was cursed for those whom I killed.
Exit Oedipus
Exeunt Messenger from Corinth and the Herdsman.
Fourth Stasimon (στάσιμον τέταρτον) [Lines 1186-1222]
The Chorus are alone in the orchestra.
The utter ruin of Oedipus has just been revealed. The Chorus chant an ode of lament for him, bewailing his fall. They lament mankind in general. They note the coming together of glory and pain during Oedipus' kingship.
The Chorus chant one's fate is unavoidable and all mortals are doomed. They wish they had never set eyes on Oedipus, even though he was once called the Saviour of the City, as he has now brought darkness into the City where he had once brought life.
Exodos (έξοδος) [Lines 1223-1530]
Enter a 2nd Messenger who is a servant in the royal household. He enters directly onto the stage via the central doors of the palace.
2nd Messenger [addressing the Chorus]: O Elders of Thebes, honoured citizens, you will hear of a deed most horrific and what grief you will feel in the telling of it. Loyal and trueborn Thebans do you care for the sons of the House of Labadacus. No river, not even the Ister [Danube], nor the Phasis [Ruoni] can cleanse and purge the House of its pollution.
Chorus: Tell us more.
2nd Messenger: In brief, our most glorious Queen Jocasta has killed herself.
Chorus: O unhappy woman, how?
2nd Messenger: By her own hand. I will spare you the greatest pain of what was done for you did not see it, but you will hear of her sufferings, You saw how she came into the palace in a rage. After that she made straight for the bridal chamber, tearing her hair with both hands as she went. After entering the bedroom she slammed both doors tight. Then she called out the name of the long since dead Laius, asking
"Do you remember that night when we coupled to breed a child for us, one who would send you to your death, and leave behind a mother who would breed with her own son?"
She then cursed and groaned, weeping on the bed upon which she had brought forth a husband by her husband, and children to her child, a double curse.
How she perished I know not more, for at that moment Oedipus burst into the palace. We turned our eyes to watch him as he paced up and down deep in a howl of misery. He shouted at us to bring him a sword and demanded to know where this wife who was no wife was, and in whose mother's womb had bore him and in the same which he had sown the seeds for his own children. He was in a frenzy. Guided by some god, for no mortals stood near to him, he threw himself at the doors to the bedroom, forcing the sockets out of the joists and bending the bolts had held the doors shut tight. The doors opened and he fell headlong into the room. There we all saw the woman dead, hanged by her neck swinging on a braided cord. He loosened the cord round her neck, and lay her corpse on the ground.
There were two golden brooches which fastened her dress. He ripped them off, and holding them high plunged the pins of same into his eyes over and over again, shrieking over and over again that they will never again be able to look at him and the evils he had suffered. The bleeding eyeballs gushed forth with a stream of blood which stained his cheeks, beard and chin, like in a hailstorm, a black stream of rain poured out of them.
From the deeds of the two of them have sprung forth woe for both man and wife, not one. The happiness and good fortune of old was happiness indeed, but today it has become lamentation, ruin, death, shame and all the evils that one can name have become theirs
Chorus: And how is he now? Does he suffer still?
2nd Messenger: He shouts for someone to unbar the doors, to be able to show to all of Thebes the father-murderer and the mother ... ; shame prevents me uttering more. He intends to cast himself out of the land and not to remain to bring a curse down upon his house, so he proclaimed. But he scarcely has any strength and needs someone to guide him for his sickness of mind is too great for him to bear. Soon you will see for yourselves the sight. The doors are opening.
Enter Oedipus onto the stage from the main doors of the palace.
Chorus [chanting]: O dreadful sight our eyes have ever beheld. Unhappy one what madness has overcome thee? What unearthly daemon rode thee down? We cannot bear to look upon thee though there is much need to hear what thee has to say.
Oedipus: Woe is me, wretched that I am, where am I? Where has my misery brought me? This is my voice borne on the wings of the air. O my fate how far hast thou sprung?
Chorus: To a dreadful place, too terrible for eyes to see, too horrible for ears to hear.
Oedipus: O the horror of the dark that I am enfolded in, an inescapable night that knows no day, a cloud that no wind can blow away. And again and again the pain which tortures my flesh in my soul's dark memory.
Chorus: Indeed, amid so much woe a twofold pain is thine to mourn and to bear.
Oedipus: Ah my friends, you are steadfast in your attention to me. You still have patience to care for a blind man. Your presence is not hid from me, though darkness envelops me. I know your voices only too well.
Chorus: Those eyes how couldst thou have done what thou hast done? What evil power drove thee to do it?
Oedipus: 'Twas Apollo. Apollo brought agonising sufferings upon me. But the hand which struck was mine alone. Why did I need to see when nothing of what I saw brought me joy?
Chorus: 'Twas exactly as thou hast said.
Oedipus: What is there left for me to look at, to love, to greet or to listen to with any pleasure my friends? Hasten my departure from this land. Lead me away as I can only bring destruction. There is no one more cursed than I and no mortal more hated by the gods.
Chorus: Wretched alike for thy fortune and for thy sense thereof, would that we had never known thee.
Oedipus: Cursed be the man who unshackled my feet as I lay in the pasture and who thereby gave me life; I thank him not. Had I died, then to you my friends and to my own soul I would have not brought so much grief. Death would have been a boon to me and all of mine.
Chorus: We all wish it could have been so.
Oedipus: So I would not have come to shed my father's blood nor would have been called by men the spouse of the woman who gave birth to me. Now the gods forsake me, successor to my father's bed and the son of a mother who has been defiled, that very same mother who gave to me my own wretched being. Is there no evil graver than this? This has been the fate of Oedipus.
Chorus: To our way of thinking this act was ill-advised. 'Twould have been better to have died than live in blindness.
Oedipus: Give me counsel no more. I do not accept that this was not the best I could have done. How could I have looked upon my father in the land of the dead with eyes that see, and at my miserable mother upon whom I have committed such a heinous sin? No mere death by strangling could pay for such wrongs. Well, perhaps ye think that the sight of children such as those as mine were born are lovely to look upon? No! No! Not lovely to my eyes, nevermore! And my city with its towering walls and sacred statues to the gods, since I am thrice wretched: I, descended as I am from the noblest sons of Thebes, have doomed myself to know of these things no more, having proclaimed that all should eject the offender whom the gods have declared as unclean, the son of Laius, and having proved myself to be that man. How then was I to look at these people with a steady gaze? How could I face our people? Nor listen to them? Indeed if there was a way to block the hearing in my ears I would not have hesitated to imprison my wretched body in full. To be blind and to hear nothing at all, how sweet for the mind to be cut off from all evil. Such would be total peace and bring rest to my mind. O Cithaeron, why didst thou provide shelter for me? When I was given to thee why didst thou not slaughter me straightaway that I might not have revealed my origin to any man? And Polybus, ah Corinth! thou who wast called the ancient house of my fathers, how seemingly fair it was to be your nursling, and what evils festered under my coverlets. Now I am found to be evil and of cursed birth. O ye three ways, and thou secret glen, thou the oak-copse which marked the narrowing of the path where the three ways met, ye who drank from my hands my father's blood which was also my own, remember this what deeds I wrought for thee to see. And then when I came hither what fresh deeds I came to do. O rites of marriage which gave me birth, when ye brought me forth again and ye bore children to your own child, ye created a whole menagerie of incestuous kinships: fathers, brothers, sons, brides, wives, mothers - yea all the foulest shame which is found amongst men. It is unfit to speak of that which is unfit to do. I beg you in the gods' names to hide me somewhere in the land beyond this city, or to slay me, or to cast me into the sea forever to be out of sight. Approach and deign to put your hands on a wretched being. Fear not, my plague rests on no mortal man.
Chorus: Nay, for here is Creon coming to consider thy requests, to act for thee and give thee counsel for he is now left alone as guardian of the land.
Oedipus: How shall I approach him? Why would he believe me, for in the past I have been found to be wholly false to him?
Enter Creon
Creon [to Oedipus]: I have not come to mock you, Oedipus, nor to reprove you for any bygone fault. But friends, remember your respect to Helios, the sun-god, if not for the children of men. What is unclean must not remain in the light of day. Neither earth nor air nor water may receive it. Take him [Oedipus] back within for piety demands that none save kinsfolk should see other kin's woes.
Oedipus: Cast me out of this land this instant, out of the sight of man.
Creon: It would have been done without delay had not the god be required to grant this. [suggesting that the oracle at Delphi ought to be consulted first.]
Oedipus: But the gods hate me. But isn't his instruction all too plain? the father-killer has to die, and here he stands.
Creon: We need clearer more certain guidance.
Oedipus: Will you ask the god' direction for one so damned?
Creon: Do you not trust him?
Oedipus: But I have one request. She who lies within, her funeral, organise it as best you seem fit. She is your sister. Do right by her. As for myself I can no longer let my presence be a curse on this my fatherland. Let me go to live on the mountains and die there. On Cithaeron where my parents chose. Let it be my deathbed. I will go and die there, obedient to their desires. And yet I know that nether age, nor illness, nor accident can end my life. I was not released from death that once unless to be preserved for some more awful destiny. So be it.
And the children: Do not concern yourself about the boys .They will fend for themselves. But the girls have never known a meal without their father. Care for them. Let me touch them one more time if you permit it.
[The children, Antigone and Ismene have already been led in by some attendants.]
Oedipus: I hear them crying. Are they here?
Creon: They are.
Oedipus: Come children and hold the hands of your "brother", whom you once called "father", he who gave you your being, and who now has come to see like this. Children, I saw nothing; I knew nothing; I weep for you both when I think of the bitter life you'll now lead. Who will dare to wed you now? Your father killed his father, and sowed his seed inside his mother from which you were begat. It is plain to see that you will now have to die barren and unmarried. [To Creon] You alone are now left to be their father for I am finished. Do not let them wander abroad as husbandless beggars. Pity them; look how young they are. Children, if you were older I would have much to say to you. But for now make this prayer for me: To live where the opportunity grants and to find a better life than your father did.
Creon: You have wept enough. You must go inside the palace.
Oedipus: I must obey. You know the terms of my leaving.
Creon: Tell me then I will know.
Oedipus: Send me away from this land to live.
Creon: Only the gods can grant this.
Oedipus: But the gods hate me.
Creon: Then perhaps you might get your wish.
Oedipus: Take me away from here.
Creon: But without the children.
Oedipus: Don't take them from me.
Creon: Don't try to take back control. You no longer have the power to command. You no longer rule here.
Exit Creon and Oedipus into the palace followed by the attendants and the children.
Chorus: People of Thebes, behold Oedipus, he who solved the riddle and became a powerful man. Which person did not look with envy upon his fortune, but now surely sees what disaster has befallen him? As mortals we should look with care to the final day, and with that in mind not call anyone happy till they have passed over to the other side without pain.
Exeunt Chorus
Oedipus' Character Arc in Oedipus Rex
Oedipus' character undergoes a profound transformation in Sophocles' Oedipus Rex. He begins as a confident, respected king and ends as a broken, self-blinded exile. This journey is marked by a sharp descent into tragic realisation.
The Confident King
Initially, Oedipus is portrayed as a strong and capable leader. He saved Thebes from the Sphinx's terror and is revered by his people. His confidence is evident in his determination to uncover the murderer of King Laius and cleanse the city of the plague.
Hubristic and arrogant, Oedipus believes in his own intelligence and ability to overcome any challenge. This overconfidence will ultimately be his downfall.
The Investigator
As the play progresses, Oedipus becomes consumed by the investigation. His initial confidence turns into obsession as he seeks to uncover the truth about Laius' murder.
Irony plays a crucial role here. The audience is aware of Oedipus' true identity and the tragic outcome, while he remains blissfully ignorant. This creates a sense of dramatic tension and suspense.
The Tragic Realisation
The gradual revelation of the truth is a devastating blow to Oedipus. As the pieces of the puzzle fall into place, he realises the horrifying extent of his actions: killing his father and marrying his mother.
His world collapses. His previously held beliefs about himself and his fate are shattered. The realization of his crimes leads to a profound sense of guilt and shame.
The Fallen King
In a final act of self-punishment, Oedipus blinds himself. This physical act symbolises his spiritual blindness and the impossibility of escaping his fate.
His character is transformed from a proud king to a broken, exiled man. He is stripped of his power and authority, forced to confront the consequences of his actions.
Oedipus' character arc is a powerful example of tragic downfall. His transformation from a respected leader to a pitiable exile is a testament to the destructive power of pride and the inescapable nature of fate in Greek tragedy.
References
Oedipus Rex - Wikipedia
Paean - Wikipedia
EIRÆSIÓHNI - EIRESIONE - ΕΙΡΕΣΙΩΝΗ (Suppliant Branches) - www.HellenicGods.org
Sophocles: Oedipus Tyrannus (Οἰδίπους Τύραννος) - - Major Reference Works - Wiley Online Library
The Oedipus plays : John Maier Spark Notes Internet Archive
Oedipus the King - CliffsNotes
CliffsNotes Oedipus trilogy : Higgins, Charles - Internet Archive
Oedipus Rex Study Guide | Literature Guide | LitCharts
Oedipus Rex Study Guide - Course Hero
Oedipus Rex Study Guide - Gerald R. Lucas
Oedipus Rex or Oedipus the King Study Guide - GradeSaver
Online Study Guide for Oedipus Rex/Oedipus the King by Sophocles-Booknotes Chapter Free Summary Plot Synopsis Essay Book Report Analysis - Pink Monkey
Study Guide to Sophocles' *Oedipus the King* - K-State Edu
Oedipus Rex by Sophocles - GreekMythology.com
OEDIPUS THE KING - SOPHOCLES - OEDIPUS REX ANALYSIS, SUMMARY, STORY
Oedipus Rex Summary - eNotes.com
Oedipus the King Summary - Shmoop
Oedipus summary - Duke University
Oedipus the King - SummaryPlanet
TheBestNotes on Oedipus Rex/Oedipus the King
Summary for Oedipus Rex/Oedipus The King Study Guide
Oedipus Rex or Oedipus the King Summary & Analysis - Good Study
Sophocles' 'Oedipus' Summary - ThoughtCo
A Summary and Analysis of Sophocles’ Oedipus the King – Interesting Literature
Sophocles' Oedipus trilogy : Ratliff, Gerald Lee: Barron's Book Notes - Internet Archive
Sir Richard C. Jebb, Commentary on Sophocles: Oedipus Tyrannus,
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Kirk Ormand (2 June 2015). A Companion to Sophocles. Chapter 7 - Oedipus Tyrranus: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 84–. ISBN 978-1-119-02553-5. https://bit.ly/3en5lzd
R. Drew Griffith (1996). Theatre of Apollo: Divine Justice and Sophocles' Oedipus the King. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. ISBN 978-0-7735-1500-0.
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Sophocles, the playwright Chapter V Oedipus Tyrranus : by S.M. Adams - Internet Archive
Helaine L. Smith (2006). Masterpieces of Classic Greek Drama. Chapter 5 Oedipus Rex: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 83–. ISBN 978-0-313-33268-5.
Griffith, R. Drew. “Oedipus Pharmakos? Alleged Scapegoating in Sophocles' ‘Oedipus the King.’” Phoenix, vol. 47, no. 2, 1993, pp. 95–114. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1088579.
Calder, William M. “The Staging of the Prologue of ‘Oedipus Tyrannus.’” Phoenix, vol. 13, no. 3, 1959, pp. 121–129. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1086999.
Ax, Wilhelm. “Die Parodos Des Oidipus Tyrannos.” Hermes, vol. 67, no. 4, 1932, pp. 413–437. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4474279.
Vellacott, P. H. “The Guilt of Oedipus.” Greece & Rome, vol. 11, no. 2, 1964, pp. 137–148. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/642236.
Vellacott, P. H. “The Chorus in 'Oedipus Tyrannus'.” Greece & Rome, vol. 14, no. 2, 1967, pp. 109–125. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/642448.
HEWITT, W. H. “THE ‘OEDIPUS TYRANNUS’ : SOPHOCLES AND MR VELLACOTT.” Theoria: A Journal of Social and Political Theory, no. 23, 1964, pp. 43–50. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41801540.
ESPOSITO, STEVE. “A TRANSPOSITION OF STANZAS IN THE PARODOS OF OEDIPUS TYRANNUS?” The Classical Quarterly, vol. 60, no. 1, 2010, pp. 1–10. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40984735. eece & Rome, vol. 13, no. 1, 1966, pp. 37–49. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/642354.
Fosso, Kurt. “Oedipus Crux:Reasonable Doubt in ‘Oedipus the King.’” College Literature, vol. 39, no. 3, 2012, pp. 26–60. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/23266055.
Law and Drama in Ancient Greece. Chapter 7: Is Oedipus Guilty? Athenian Homicide Law: A&C Black. 16 October 2013. pp. 122–. ISBN 978-1-4725-1985-6.
Carey, C. “The Second Stasimon of Sophocles' Oedipus Tyrannus.” The Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. 106, 1986, pp. 175–179. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/629651
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Keith Sidwell. “The Argument of the Second Stasimon of Oedipus Tyrannus.” The Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. 112, 1992, pp. 106–122. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/632155
Gellie, G. H. “The Second Stasimon of the Oedipus Tyrannus.” The American Journal of Philology, vol. 85, no. 2, 1964, pp. 113–123., www.jstor.org/stable/293059.
Carey, C. “The Second Stasimon of Sophocles' Oedipus Tyrannus.” The Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. 106, 1986, pp. 175–179. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/629651.Brandenburg, Philipp. “The Second Stasimon in Sophocles' Oedipus Tyrannus.” L'Antiquité Classique, vol. 74, 2005, pp. 29–40. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41666124.
Dawe, Roger. “ON INTERPOLATIONS IN THE TWO OEDIPUS PLAYS OF SOPHOCLES.” Rheinisches Museum Für Philologie, vol. 144, no. 1, 2001, pp. 1–21. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41234474.
Mastronarde, Donald J. Classical Philology, vol. 80, no. 2, 1985, pp. 179–182. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/270165.
Finglass, Patrick J.. "The ending of Sophocles’ Oedipus rex" Philologus, vol. 153, no. 1, 2009, pp. 42-62. https://doi.org/10.1524/phil.2009.0004
https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/ws/files/148858062/End_of_Sophocles_OR_Philologus_.pdf
Roger Dawe and the Text
of Greek Tragedy by Patrick J. Finglass
art-10.14277-Lexis-2724-1564-2020-02-004.pdf
KOVACS, DAVID. “DO WE HAVE THE END OF SOPHOCLES' ‘OEDIPUS TYRANNUS?".” The Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. 129, 2009, pp. 53–70. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/20789891.
SOMMERSTEIN, ALAN H. “ONCE MORE THE END OF SOPHOCLES' OEDIPUS TYRANNUS.” The Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. 131, 2011, pp. 85–93. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41722134.
KOVACS, DAVID. “THE END OF SOPHOCLES' OEDIPUS TYRANNUS: THE SCEPTICAL CASE RESTATED.” The Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. 134, 2014, pp. 56–65. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43286071.
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The Third Stasimon of the Oedipus Tyrannos
David Sansone Classical Philology 1975 70:2, 110-117
Oedipus the King: A Greek Tragedy, Philosophy, Politics and Philology by Ekaterini Nikolarea
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https://bit.ly/3c3GHAM
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Oedipus at Thebes: Sophocles' tragic hero and his time: Knox, Bernard - Internet Archive
The Oxford Guide to Plays by Michael Patterson Oedipus the King - Internet Archive
Bernard M. W. Knox. “Why Is Oedipus Called Tyrannos?” The Classical Journal, vol. 50, no. 3, 1954, pp. 97–130. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3292487.
Bernard M. W. Knox. “The Date of the Oedipus Tyrannus of Sophocles.” The American Journal of Philology, vol. 77, no. 2, 1956, pp. 133–147. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/292475
Bernard MacGregor Walker Knox (1966). Oedipus at Thebes. Yale University Press.
HESTER, D.A. “OEDIPUS AND JONAH.” Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society, no. 23 (203), 1977, pp. 32–61. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/44696639.
Gottfried Greiffenhagen. “Der Prozess Des Ödipus: Strafrechtliche Und Strafprozessuale Bemerkungen Zur Interpretation Des Ödipus Rex Des Sophokles.” Hermes, vol. 94, no. 2, 1966, pp. 147–176. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4475399.
Bernard Knox (1 January 1998). Oedipus at Thebes: Sophocles' Tragic Hero and His Time. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-07423-9.
https://openlibrary.org/works/OL2671202W/Oedipus_at_Thebes
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Oedipus Tyrannus : tragic heroism and the limits of knowledge : Charles Segal - Internet Archive
Gerd Kremer (1963). Strukturanalyse des Oidipus Tyrannos von Sophokles. - (Tübingen 1963: Huth.) II, 185 S. 8°. Fotodruck E. Huth.
J. C. Kamerbeek (1 June 2000). The Plays of Sophocles: Commentaries. BRILL. pp. 31–. ISBN 90-04-01200-1.
Esposito, Stephen. “The Changing Roles of the Sophoclean Chorus.” Arion: A Journal of Humanities and the Classics, vol. 4, no. 1, 1996, pp. 85–114. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/20163602.
GRIFFITH, R. DREW. “Asserting Eternal Providence: Theodicy in Sophocles' ‘Oedipus the King.’” Illinois Classical Studies, vol. 17, no. 2, 1992, pp. 193–211. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/23064321.
HEWITT, W. H. “THE ‘OEDIPUS TYRANNUS’ : SOPHOCLES AND MR VELLACOTT.” Theoria: A Journal of Social and Political Theory, no. 23, 1964, pp. 43–50. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41801540.
CATENACCIO, CLAIRE. “OEDIPUS TYRANNUS: THE RIDDLE OF THE FEET.” The Classical Outlook, vol. 89, no. 4, 2012, pp. 102–107. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43940190.
Kane, Robert L. “Prophecy and Perception in the Oedipus Rex.” Transactions of the American Philological Association (1974-), vol. 105, 1975, pp. 189–208. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/283940.
Harsh, Philip W. “Implicit and Explicit in the Oedipus Tyrannus.” The American Journal of Philology, vol. 79, no. 3, 1958, pp. 243–258. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/292562.
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The ancient concept of Progress and other essays on Greek Literature and Belief: Dodds, E. R. - Internet Archive pp 64- ‘On Misunderstanding the Oedipus Rex’
Vernant, Jean-Pierre. “Ambiguity and Reversal: On the Enigmatic Structure of Oedipus Rex.” The Oedipus Casebook: Reading Sophocles' Oedipus the King, edited by Mark R. Anspach, by Wm. Blake Tyrrell, Michigan State University Press, East Lansing, 2020, pp. 279–308. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.14321/j.ctvw1d58n.12.
“SPACE, TIME, AND MEMORY: SOPHOCLES’ OEDIPUS TYRANNUS.” The Play of Space: Spatial Transformation in Greek Tragedy, by Rush Rehm, Princeton University Press, PRINCETON; OXFORD, 2002, pp. 215–235. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7sg70.12.
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Intro_and_Notes_to_Oedipus Rex_by_Oliver Taplin_2017.pdf
Sophocles and the Guilt of Oedipus - Google Scholar Search
Sophocles: Oedipus Rex - Google Scholar Search
End of Oedipus Tyrannus - Google Scholar Search
F. Budelmann (2000) Oedipus' Ongoing Tragedy OMNIBUS 39
06BudelmannOedipus.pdf
Oedipus: The ancient legend and its later analogues: Edmunds, Lowell - Internet Archive
The Classical Plot and the Invention of Western Narrative - N. J. Lowe - Google Books\
Sophocles and the language of tragedy: Goldhill, Simon - Internet Archive
Sophocles and Pericles: Victor Ehrenberg - Internet Archive
Michael Comber (1996) Suspense and sensibility: Sophocles' Oedipus the King OMNIBUS 32
05ComberSuspense.pdf
Greek tragedy in action: Taplin, Oliver Paul - Internet Archive
Sophocles: Four Tragedies: Sophocles, tr by Oliver Taplin - Internet Archive
Greek Versions
Sophocles: Oedipus Tyrannus on JSTOR Aris & Phillips
Oedipus Rex: Sophocles - Internet Archive Edited by R. Dawe
Sophoclis tragoediae Tom. I: Sophocles - Internet Archive edidit R.D. Dawe
Aiax - Electra - Oedipus Rex
The Oedipus Rex of Sophocles from the Text of W. Dindorf - Google Books
The Oedipus Tyrannus of Sophocles Volume 1 Internet Archive - Mitchell
Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus - Perseus Digital Library
Sophoclis tragoediae : Sophocles - Internet Archive
Sophocles; Thomas Mitchell (1844). Tragedies: Antigonë. Oedipus Coloneus. Oedipus tyrannus. Volume 1 ΟΙΔΙΠΟΥΣ ΤΥΡΑΝΝΟΣ. J.H. Parker.
The Oedipus tyrannus of Sophocles : Greek and translation by J.T. Sheppard - Internet Archive
The Oedipus Tyrannus of Sophocles - Internet Archive
Sophocles (1867). The Oedipus rex of Sophocles, from the text of W. Dindorf. With notes by W.B. Jones. pp. 13–.
Sophocles, in single plays, Oedipus Tyrannus by Lewis Campbell - Internet Archive
Sophocles (1887). The Oedipus Tyrannus of Sophocles: As Arranged for Performance at Cambridge, November, 1887. I. The Text in Greek and English. II. The Incidental Music. Macmillan.
Sophocles (1881). Oedipus Tyrannus: Edited, for the Use of Schools, with English Notes and an Introduction. Ginn, Heath & Company.
The Oedipus Tyrannus Of Sophocles THE GREEK TEXT WITH ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY A J; HUNT - Internet Achive
Sophocles; Fredericus H. M. Blaydes; Frederick Apthorp Paley (1859). Sophocles: Birth and life; Oedipus Tyrannus; Oedipus Coloneus; Antigone. Whittaker.
Sophocle; Sophocles (27 July 2006). Sophocles: Oedipus Rex. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85177-0.
The Oedipus Tyrannus of Sophocles: with English notes by Sophocles, ed Howard Crosby - Internet Archive
Sophocle; Sophocles (27 July 2006). R.D. Dawe (ed.). Sophocles: Oedipus Rex. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85177-0.
Sophocles: Oedipus the King - Google Books ed. P.J. Finglass, Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries
[HTML] The plague of Thebes, a historical epidemic in Sophocles' Oedipus Rex
Oedipus Rex in the first half of the decade 430–420 bc. A lethal plague is described in this drama. We adopted a critical approach to Oedipus Rex in analyzing the literary description of the disease, unraveling its clinical features, and defining a possible underlying cause. Our goals were to clarify whether the plague described in Oedipus Rex reflects an actual
historical event; to compare it with the plague of Athens, which was described by Thucydides in his History occurring around the same time Sophocles wrote; and to propose a likely causative pathogen. A critical reading of Oedipus Rex and a comparison with Thucydides’ history, as well as a systematic review of historical data, strongly suggests that this epidemic was an actual event, possibly caused by Brucella abortus.
Translations
Oedipus, King of Thebes; translated into English rhyming verse with explanatory notes by Gilbert Murray : Sophocles -Internet Archive
Sophocles (1883). Robert Whitelaw (ed.). Sophocles. Oedipus the King: Rivingtons.
The Three Theban plays by Sophocles, Oedipus the King, Penguin Classics - Internet Archive
https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Oedipus_Rex
Sophocles (2008). Antigone; Oedipus the King; Electra. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-156110-8.
Antigone ; Oedipus the King ; Electra : Sophocles - Internet Archive Oxford World's Classics
Sophocles I : Oedipus the King, Oedipus at Colonus, Antigone - Internet Archive ed. David Grene
Sophocles (2012). David Grene (tr. & ed.). Oedipus the King. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-76869-4.
The three Theban plays : Sophocles :-Internet Archive
The Oedipus Tyrannus Of Sophocles - Internet Archive
The Theban plays: King Oedipus, Oedipus at Colonus Antigone : Sophocles - Internet Archive
The Theban Plays : Sophocles - Internet Archive
The Dramas Of Sophocles : Young, George - Internet Archive
The tragedies of Sophocles : Sophocles - Internet Archive
Oedipus Rex - Wikisource
Loeb Edition L020 Oedipus the King, Oedipus at Colonus, Antigone trans by F. Storr - Internet Archive
Three Theban plays : Sophocles - Internet Archive
Tragedies of Sophocles (Plumptre 1878)/Oedipus the King - Wikisource
Sophocles; Richard Claverhouse Jebb (1893). Sophocles: The Oedipus Tyrannus (3rd ed. 1914). Part I: The Oedipus Tyrannus: The University Press.
Tragedies of Sophocles (Jebb 1917)/Oedipus the King - Wikisource, the free online library
The Oedipus plays of Sophocles; Oedipus the King, Oedipus at Colonus, Antigone : Sophocles tr. by Paul Roche - Internet Archive [revised and updated edition].
The Oedipus plays of Sophocles; Oedipus the King, Oedipus at Colonus, Antigone : Sophocles tr. by Paul Roche - Internet Archive
The Oedipus plays of Sophocles : Sophocles- Internet Archive Paul Roche
Three Theban plays : Sophocles trans. by Peter Constantine Internet Archive
The Oedipus Cycle - Internet Archive
The Internet Classics Archive - Oedipus the King by Sophocles
Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus - Perseus Digital Library
Sophocles' King Oedipus : in the translation by W.B. Yeats - Internet Archive
Sophocles (1887). The Oedipus Tyrannus of Sophocles: As Arranged for Performance at Cambridge, November, 1887. I. The Text in Greek and English. II. The Incidental Music. Macmillan.
Sophocles and Oedipus (1977 edition) A Study of Oedipus Tyrannus with a New Translation - Open Library by Phillip Vellacott
Oedipus tyrannus : Sophocles - Internet Archive
Adaptations
John Dryden; Nathaniel Lee (1791). Oedipus: A Tragedy. proprietors, under the direction of John Bell.
Audio/Visual
In Our Time Podcast - Oedipus Rex - Podbean App
BBC Radio 4 - In Our Time, Oedipus Rex
Episode_030_two_legs_in_the_afternoon Doug Metzger
Sophocles Oedipus Rex 1957 - YouTube
Sophocles: The Theban Plays : Brother Elias - Internet Archive
Apollo Arts production of Oedipus Rex - YouTube
Oedipus Rex : Sophocles (Librivox) - Internet Archive
https://youtu.be/Kma3hE3_D5o
https://youtu.be/MRxDVhCQwPM
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