Ancient Greek Theatre: The Libation Bearers (Choephori)

2nd part of the Oresteia, The Libation Bearers or Women at the Graveside (Choephori - Χοηϕόροι).

Argument

Now when she had slain Agamemnon, Queen Clytaemestra with her lover Aegisthus ruled in the land of Argos. But the spirit of her murdered lord was worth and sent a baleful vision to distress her soul in sleep. She dreamed that she gave birth to a serpent and that she suckled it, as if it had been a babe; but together with the mother’s milk the noxious thing drew clotted blood from out her breast. With a scream of horror she awoke, and when the seers of the house had interpreted the portent as a sign of the anger of the nether powers, she bade Electra, her daughter, and her serving-women bear libations to the tomb of Agamemnon, if haply she might placate his spirit.

Now Princess Electra dwelt in the palace, but was treated no better than a slave; but, before that Agamemnon was slain, her brother, Prince Orestes, had been sent to abide with his uncle Strophius in a far country, even in Phocis. There he had grown to youthful manhood, and on the selfsame day that his mother sought to avert the evil omen of her dream, accompanied by his cousin Pylades, he came to Argos seeking vengeance for his father’s murder.

On the tomb of Agamemnon he places a lock of his hair, and when Electra discovers it, she is confident that it must be an offering to the dead made by none other than her brother. She has been recognized by him by reason of her mourning garb; but not until she has had further proof, by signs and tokens, will she be convinced that it is he in very truth.

Orestes makes known that he has been divinely commissioned to his purpose of vengeance. Lord Apollo himself has commanded him thereto with threats that, if he disobey, he shall be visited with assaults of the Erinyes of his father—banned from the habitations of men and the altars of the gods, he shall perish blasted in mind and body.

Grouped about the grave of their father, brother and sister, aided by the friendly Chorus, implore his ghostly assistance to their just cause. Orestes and Pylades, disguised as Phocian travellers, are given hospitable welcome by Clytaemestra, to whom it is reported that her son is dead. The Queen sends as messenger Orestes’ old nurse to summon Aegisthus from outside accompanied by his bodyguard. The Chorus persuades her to alter the message and bid him come unattended. His death is quickly followed by that of Clytaemestra, whose appeals for mercy are rejected by her son. Orestes, displaying the bloody robe in which his father had been entangled when struck down, proclaims the justice of his deed. But his wits begin to wander; the Erinyes of his mother, unseen by the others, appear before his disordered vision; he rushes from the scene.

Dramatis Personae

Orestes – son of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra

Pylades – Orestes’ cousin and foster-brother, son of Strophius of Phocis [almost mute part]

Electra – sister of Orestes

Chorus of elderly slave women, from Asia, serving in the Palace of Atreus

Doorman [Slave] for the palace

Clytemnestra – queen of Argos

Cilissa – the Nurse of the infant Orestes

Aegisthus – ruler of Argos

Servant of the palace

Possible Distribution of Parts
Protagonist: Orestes

Antagonists: Clytemnestra, Aegisthus, the Furies

Setting: The action in the play takes place before the Skene which represents the Palace of Atreus at Argos. The orchestra’s altar serves as Agamemnon’s tomb. It is situated well in front of the stage. The time is about 7 years after the murder of Agamemnon.

Summary

Prologue [Lines 1–21]: [Much of the text of the Prologue is missing] Enter Orestes and Pylades. Orestes has returned secretly to Argos after several years in exile in Phocis to visit the tomb of his father, Agamemnon, who was murdered by Clytemnestra and Aegisthus who now rule jointly in Argos. Orestes is accompanied by Pylades, his cousin.

Orestes begins with an invocation to Hermes. He lays a lock of his hair on Agamemnon's tomb.

The Chorus of the Palace Slave Women dressed in black enter from stage right.

He sees Electra, his sister, is with the Slave Women. He declares to Zeus that he is seeking vengeance for his father's murder.

Orestes and Pylades hide.

Parodos [Lines 22–83]:
The Chorus chant that they have been sent by Clytemnestra to pour libations on Agamemnon's tomb. They are beating their breasts: they are tearing their cheeks and their clothing in mourning. Clytemnestra has had a nightmare. A prophet has said that her dream came from the dead Agamemnon who is enraged by his murder. Clytemnestra has ordered that the Chorus and Electra have to go and pour libations on his tomb to settle his spirit, but the earth has already drunk too much blood. They complain that they were taken as captive slaves from their homeland.

First Episode Part A (84–305): Electra speaks. She asks the Chorus what can she say to her father as she pours her libation. She cannot bring her mother's love for him, because she murdered him. Should she pour the libation in silence? Or just throw the vase away? She says that the Slave Women share a common hatred in the household with her. The Chorus advise that as she pours the libation she should praise those who are loyal to Agamemnon's memory and who hate Aegisthus. That she should pray for some man or spirit to come one day to exact revenge. Electra sees a lock of hair on the tomb. The Chorus remark that those who mourn can only hate. She wonders who has been. The lock of hair looks exactly like hers. Chorus: Could it be Orestes'? Electra: It looks like his. Chorus: How could he dare to come here? Electra: He has sent it to honour his father. Chorus: This bring tears to our eyes. This means he will never set foot in this land again. Electra wonders how can she know whether the lock of hair came from an enemy or her brother? She sees footprints on the ground. They are like hers, the same size as hers. Orestes steps out hiding and moves towards the altar making himself known to Electra. Orestes: Your prayers are answered. You see who you have been praying for. Here I am, your Orestes. Electra: I don't believe it. You are a stranger come to mock me. You are weaving some trickery around me. Orestes: If I mock your misery, I mock my own. Electra: Should I really call you Orestes? Orestes: Compare the lock of hair with your own! You are slow to recognise me. Orestes pulls out a small piece of woven fabric.. Orestes: This is the work of your hand. It bears the motif of an animal. Electra recognises it and starts to react with joy. Orestes: Calm down. Our closest kin are our cruellest foes. Electra: You truly are our closest and dearest to our father's House. Orestes: Zeus, you see before you Electra and Orestes, children robbed of their father, both cast into exile from their House. Our father paid you great honour. If you destroy the eagle's brood no one will worship you again; your altars will be ignored. But you can raise up the House to glory again. He tells about what Apollo's oracle at Delphi has told him; that will not betray him. Apollo mandated that he must endure this trial. That he would suffer if he did not avenge the murder of his father, and kill his murderers in the same manner that they killed him. He has to claim his birth-right or suffer the evils of a life full of pain. He described how Apollo revealed to him how a malicious rancour festers in the flesh of mankind devouring his health; how he would be visited by The Erinyes [Furies] .

Orestes continues telling us that he has compelling personal reasons which drive him: chiefly his filial duty to the memory of Agamemnon and his bitterness for the loss of his inheritance. He has obligations to the people of Argos, conquerors of Troy, who now live in shame and are living under the tyranny of Aegisthus and Clytemnestra.

Kommos (306–478):

Orestes, The Chorus and Electra each taking turns, Pylades stands silently by to the side. The Kommos [a lament, a dirge of death, an ode for vengeance] is an appeal to Zeus, the god of Justice, and the gods above and below to fulfil their rights. "Justice screams and demands her price. A bloody blow must be paid with a bloody blow." Orestes appeals to his dead father: What should he say, what should he do? Can light transcend the darkness? Chorus: All wail the vendetta song, that stirs and seeks the sin. Electra tearfully appeals to her dead father to listen to her grief. She appeals to him to receive at his grave the exile [Orestes] and the suppliant [herself]. Electra: What is good? What is evil? Can we ever conquer ruin? Chorus: May the gods help us sing a more joyful song, instead of dirges at the side of a tomb. Orestes: Father, would that a Lycian spear had struck you down at Troy, for praises of glory would be raised for you and your children would be met with respect. Chorus: He would have been welcomed by his comrades, those who died at Troy, those of his men who fell with honour. Electra: No father! Not death at Troy beneath its walls. I wish your killers had died a despicable death. Chorus: You voice matters beyond the power of gold. Our rulers are impure. Orestes has allies beneath the earth. Orestes: That went through my ears like a striking bolt. Zeus, may vengeance come up from below and bring ruin down upon depraved and criminal hands. Chorus: O to be able to chant the cry of victory when the man [Aegisthus] is struck and the woman [Clytemnestra] is killed. Our hearts' anger are blowing with rancorous loathing. Electra: When will Zeus clench his fist to strike them both dead, to shatter their skulls and restore faith in the land? Chorus: There is a law: bloodshed dripping to the ground demands another's blood. Orestes: Zeus, which way should we turn? Chorus: We lose all hope when we hear this despair, but the pain will relent when new hope dawns in all her radiant beauty.

Electra: What should our prayers be saying when we suffer the pains of our parents? My heart has a pain which no mother's comforting can soothe. Chorus: Our arms beat the rhythm and grief wails of Cissian women form Susa on our breasts, bruising ourselves. We rend our hair and with random blows our heads are stunned full of woe. Electra: How could our cruel and shameless mother deny the king his people and the man his wake, burying him unlamented? Orestes: He was humiliated and disgraced, but our mother will pay for my father by the will of my hands. I will do away with her. Chorus: Yes, he was mutilated of his manhood and rendered powerless, and she buried him like this. Know the dishonour done to your father. Electra: You speak of my father's death, but know that I have been shut up in my chamber like a dog, where endless tears have poured from my eyes. My life has been unendurable. Write these things too down in your minds. Orestes: Father, be our friend. Electra: With tears I beg this. Chorus: Hear us. May force meet force and right meet right. Stand with us against the hated.

First Episode Part B (479–584): The Chorus withdraw. Orestes and Electra approach the altar next to Agamemnon's tomb. They pray to their father for help in their common cause. Orestes: Give me the power to rule your house. Electra: Help me to kill her lover, Aegisthus. Orestes says if the spirit of his father helps him he promises great sacred feasts will be held in his honour. Electra promises to bring libations from her wedding feast to pour her bridal wine on his tomb. Orestes prays to the earth goddess to give up his father's ghost. Electra prays to Persephone for his gorgeous handsome power. They remind their father of his murder in the bath and the net which held him down; how shameful it was. Orestes: Are these enough to rouse you, father? Send us Justice as our ally or help us to pin them down, if you wish to seize victory from defeat. Electra: Take pity on us. Orestes: Do not let the seed of Pelops die out. The Chorus leader steps forward. He tells Orestes and Electra that they ought to act now. Orestes says that he will but wonders why his mother had sent libations to their dead father. The Chorus leader explains that their mother was suffering from nightmares and sleepwalking. Clytemnestra had told them that she had dreamt she had given birth to a snake; that she had wrapped it in swaddling like a baby and put it in a cradle. How did she feed it? She gave it milk from her own breast. Why was her breast not harmed? It was. Blood curdled with milk poured forth with each sharp tug. The Chorus-leader continues: Clytemnestra had woken up screaming and had the palace lit. And then had instructed them to take libations to the dead hoping it would cure the pain she was suffering, perhaps like some surgeon's cure. Orestes says he will fulfil that wish. If the snake had originated from the same place as he and he had drunk milk from the same breasts that the snake had been fed by, so be it: she must die. He must turn into a serpent and kill her violently.

The Chorus accept his interpretation of his mother's vision, and tell him to give his friends orders what to do.

Orestes says his sister, Electra, must return indoors. Everyone must keep the arrangements secret so that they may be caught by trickery. He says he will arrive in the guise of a stranger complete with baggage at the front door of the palace together with Pylades speaking Phocian with a Delphic accent. If the doorkeepers fail to receive them with a royal welcome, they will wait by the entrance. Passers-by will wonder why Aegisthus has abused the moral obligation of hospitality to strangers by keeping his doors closed to them. But if they gain access and he finds Aegisthus seated on his father's throne he will immediately strike him dead. He will make a bloody corpse of him.

Orestes: Our Fury will never want for blood. She will have her fill. She will drink his unmixed.

He directs Electra to keep close watch on what happens inside the palace to help the plan to succeed. He directs the Chorus to keep silent about the plan speaking only when it is necessary to help their cause.

Electra goes inside the palace. Orestes and Pylades wait by the entrance.

First Stasimon [Lines 585–653]:
The Chorus chant of the horrors of the world and the things which are cruel to mankind. The earth nurtures many terrors which frighten and cause grief. The ocean teems with hostile brutish creatures. Lightnings too, between earth and sky, strike harm to airborne and earthbound things. Angry winds blow which we call tempests. All of these things can be described. But who or what can account for man's overly bold spirit? Passions rule a woman's wreckless mind, those passions which are partner in men's ruin,

They sing of Thestius' heartless daughter, who killed her own son. She burnt up the torch that had been alight since his birth. This is the torch that the Fates had foretold would stay alight until the day he was destined to die.

They tell us that we must recall the story of the daughter of Nisus, king of Megara. How she brought destruction upon her father. Whilst he was asleep she cut the lock of hair which made him immortal. Hermes came for him in his dreams and took him away. Why did she betray her own father? All for the sake of a golden necklace, which king Minos of Crete, Nisus' enemy, had given her.

These things remind us of a loveless marriage, a curse to the house. Soon we will hear of the planned designs of a woman committed against her warrior husband, one who was well respected even by his enemies.

And as for the Lemnians, no crime was more abominable, more evil: in an outrage hateful to the gods a race of men perished in dishonour.

[Herodotus (Histories, Book 6) , tells us that the Pelasgians after they had been driven from Athens, and were settled in Lemnos, conceived the wish to be revenged on the Athenians. So, as they were well acquainted with the Athenian festivals, they manned some penteconters, and laid an ambush to catch the Athenian women as they kept the festival of Artemis at Brauron. They succeeded in carrying off a large number, whom they took to Lemnos and there kept them as concubines. After a while the women bore children, whom they taught to speak the language of Attica and observe the manners of the Athenians. These boys refused to have any commerce with the sons of the Pelasgian women; and if a Pelasgian boy struck one of their number, they all made common cause, and joined in avenging their comrade; nay, the Greek boys even set up a claim to exercise lordship over the others, and succeeded in gaining the upper hand. When these things came to the ears of the Pelasgians, they took counsel together, and, on considering the matter, they grew frightened, and said one to another, "If these boys even now are resolved to make common cause against the sons of our lawful wives, and seek to exercise lordship over them, what may we expect when they grow up to be men?" Then it seemed good to the Pelasgians to kill all the sons of the Attic women; which they did accordingly, and at the same time slew likewise their mothers. From this deed, and that former crime of the Lemnian women, when they slew their husbands in the days of Thoas, it has come to be usual throughout Greece to call wicked actions by the name of "Lemnian deeds."]

Second Episode [Lines 654–782]: Orestes and Pylades are by the front door of the palace. They knock on the door. A Doorkeeper opens the door. Orestes tells the Doorkeeper that they are travellers carrying an important message for the masters of the palace and are looking for a place to stay the night. Does the palace welcome strangers? Fetch someone in charge. Exit Doorkeeper back inside.

Clytemnestra comes to the door and welcomes the strangers in. She offers them the hospitality of the palace (hot baths, bedding to soothe their weariness and honest faces, whatever they need) and asks to listen to their message. Orestes tells her that they are merchants, Daulians from Phocis, who have just arrived in Argos. On the way to Argos, they met with Strophius, king of Phocis, who asked them to tell the parents of Orestes of the death of their son, and ask them where they would like to have him buried.
Clytemnestra begins to lament the death of her son.

Orestes tells Clytemnestra that he has been most royally mourned in Argos. That he has been greatly honoured in having brought this news to her, and now also to be also treated like honoured guests in such an illustrious house.

Clytemnestra says that the news must not prevent her guests from receiving proper hospitality. She directs the household servants to take care of Orestes and Pylades.

Orestes and Pylades are led into the House by a Servant. Clytemnestra follows them.

(719) The Chorus chant that all the loyal servants of the house should unite behind Orestes' cause. They beg that the spirit in the tomb of Agamemnon come to their aid. The time has now come for the sword to deal death.

(730) Enter from the palace onto the stage Cilissa, Orestes' wet nurse. She has heard of the news about the death of Orestes. She tells the Chorus that she has been sent by Clytemnestra to find Aegisthus and bring him to her, with his guards, so that he may hear the news directly from the guests. The Nurse declares it to be the Curse of the House of Atreus at work. She says she expects Aegisthus to become happy on hearing it.
She tells of the time when Clytemnestra had appointed her to be Orestes' wet nurse. How the baby Orestes kept her awake all night by his wailing. Hungry? A baby has to be fed. She tells us how she had been cheated: how she had to wash the baby's swaddling clothes as well as being its wet nurse at the same time. And now sadly she has learned he is dead. And that Aegisthus rules in his stead, a man who has most foully ruined the House of Atreus.

The Chorus tell her that may not be the whole truth and tell her that hope may be on its way. She is to go and find Aegisthus and bring him to Clytemnestra unattended by guards, despite what she has said.

Second Stasimon [Lines 783–837]:

The Chorus pray to Zeus begging him to listen, and to grant good fortune to the rightful rulers of this house. They call upon Justice to protect and guard Electra and to raise Orestes up to greatness. Chorus: Guide him into the halls and set his enemies before him. Orestes is yoked to a chariot of suffering. Set him on his course. Let us see him come round into the final home straight. They address Aegisthus inside the house telling him he has to pay the debt of past bloodshed with this just slaughter. Only this will purge the House from the murders of old. Chorus: When the House has been set free we women will raise our voices. The House will prosper, and we will share in it. They direct Orestes to do the deed and kill the Gorgon inside.

Third Episode [Lines 838–934]:
Enter Aegisthus He tells us he has been summoned to hear the news some travellers have brought concerning the death of Orestes. A burden will be lifted from this palace if this is true. Or are they the vague reports of a woman's fear? The Chorus tell him what he has heard is true. They heard it too.

Aegisthus wants now to question the messengers to see if they were present at Orestes' death. Or if they only give a vague report and were not present when he died: they will not cheat one who has his eyes wide open.

Aegisthus goes quickly into the palace. Chorus: Zeus, O Zeus, What can we say? How shall we begin our invocations to the gods? Either man-slaying axes are destroying the family of Agamemnon or he is kindling the fire and light of his liberty. Orestes shall have the right to rule in his own city, and inherit the wealth of his fathers; such is the bout which he is entering. May he be the champion of its victory. A scream and wailing is heard coming from within the palace. Chorus: What's that? How stands the matter in the palace? Let us stand aside till the matter is concluded so that we may seem not to be implicated in these horrors, for the matter has surely been settled. Enter a House-Slave: he runs out of the palace in a panic. Slave: O woe, utter woe for our master! He is slain: Aegisthus is no more. Unlock the doors to the women's apartments. There is need for someone young and strong, not to help the dead. What? Am I shout at the deaf? Does no one hear? Are they all sleeping uselessly? Where's Clytemnestra?

Clytemnestra appears at the door to the palace. Clytemnestra: What is the matter? Why are you shouting for help? Slave: The dead are killing the living! The House-Slave exits back inside. Clytemnestra: Alas, I understand all too well the meaning of this riddle. Trickery will occasion our death. Just as we killed by it so too our end will be the same. Someone fetch me an axe. Let it be decided whether we be the victors or the vanquished. Orestes and Pylades now come out of the palace. Orestes [to Clytemnestra]: I am seeking you. [Pointing at Aegisthus' body] This wretch here has had all he needed.

Clytemnestra: Dear Aegisthus, you are dead! Orestes: So you love the man? You will lie beside him in the same tomb, never to betray him even in death. Clytemnestra [clutching her breast]: Hold there my son, this is the breast which suckled you and upon which you slept as you tugged at it with toothless gums. You were made strong by its milk. Orestes: Pylades, what should I do? How can I kill my mother?

Pylades: What then becomes of the oracles declared at the Pythian shrine? Better to be despised by all of mankind, than to be hated by the gods.

Orestes: So be it. You have advised me well. [To Clytemnestra] Come here and let the deed be done. I will slaughter you by his body. Alive you thought him better than my father. Now sleep with him forever in death, since you hated the man you ought to have loved. Clytemnestra: It was I who nourished you. It is I who should grow old with you. Orestes: What! murder my father and then make a home with me? Clytemnestra: Fate. The Fates decreed his death. Orestes: And fate now decrees you should die. Clytemnestra: Do you not dread your mother's curse? Orestes: That same mother who gave birth to me and yet who cast me out to misery. Clytemnestra: I did not cast you out. I sent you to the house of a friendly ally.

Orestes: I was sold in disgrace like a slave, yet I was born of a free father. Clytemnestra: What price did I get for you? Orestes: I am ashamed to charge you with the guilt of that. Clytemnestra: Do not fail as well to speak of your father's follies. Orestes: Do not accuse him whilst you sat wantonly idle at home. Clytemnestra: It is grievous for a woman to be deprived of a husband.

Orestes: That may be so, but it is a husband's toil which supports them whilst they sit at home. Clytemnestra: You seem resolved, my child, to kill your mother. Orestes: You will kill yourself, not I! Clytemnestra: Take care! beware the hounds of wrath that avenge a morther. Orestes: How will I escape my father's if I leave this matter undone? Clytemnestra: I see that pouring libations in mourning on a tomb avails me naught. Orestes: Indeed naught. My father's fate has ordained this destiny for you. Clytemnestra [wailing]: I have given birth to a serpent, which I have nursed at my breast. Orestes: Indeed your dream foretold this terror. You killed him whom you ought not to have done, so suffer what ought not to be! Orestes forces Clytemnestra into the palace, and is followed by Pylades.

Third Stasimon [Lines 935–971]:
The Chorus [alone] chant. They are sorrowful even for Clytemnestra and Aegisthus, but Orestes by his determination will end this chain of blood-revenge and the light in the eyes of the House of Atreus will not die out completely. Justice came hard and heavy to Priam and all his sons and Agamemnon delivered vengeance, driving his sword in up to its hilt. Raise a high cry over the house of Atreus, now won free of its distress. Orestes came back and did his work secretly with his hand steered by the very daughter of Zeus: her wind brings fury and death upon those she hates. Apollo, too, has returned to deliver vengeance. Time brings all things to pass. In time the stain will be driven from this house. Ceremonies will wash clean and cast out the Furies. And fortune's dice will be cast again as new persons take up residence in it. The doors of the palace open. In a tableau Orestes is standing over the murdered bodies of Clytemnestra and Aegisthus, and attendants display the robe which Clytemnestra had used to ensnare Agamemnon when she murdered him. They are rolled out on the ekkyklema. Final Scene and Exodos [Lines 973–1076]: Orestes makes a speech over the two bodies. Here lie the two tyrants who killed his father and usurped the throne. In death they are lovers still: they swore to kill his father; they swore to die together. That oath has now been kept.

Gathering the Chorus around him in a circle, laying out the robe before them. He continues describing how they had murdered Agamemnon, tying his hands and netting him in the robe. Let the Sun [Apollo] be his witness in the forthcoming trial that the robe is evidence of his mother's sacrilegious handiwork. As for Aegisthus, he counts for nothing: his end was lawfully justified. Like some water snake, she plotted his death as the mother of his children; she used the robe like some winding sheet killing him whilst he was in his bath, and like a highwayman robbed him of his wealth. May such a wife never come to live with him, rather let the gods destroy him with a childless marriage.

Orestes: Did she or did she not do it? This robe is my witness. It is stained with the blood on Aegisthus' sword that she drew from my father. She dipped and dipped the sword in again and again, wiping its balde on the robe. I may have won, and yet I grieve for my victory is soiled and has no pride.

Chorus: There is trouble here and more yet to come.

Orestes: I see not how this will end. I am like a charioteer driven off his course; I am beaten. My rebellious senses drive me along. My heart throbs performing the dance of wrath. I have killed my mother not without some right for she was stained with the murder of my father. The gods were disgusted because of this. Apollo gave me permission to commit this act and not be charged for the crime. Let the chief seer of his temple be my witness. Apollo ordained that I should seek no other oracle than his. The people of Argos will come to relate how these deeds were done. meanwhile I must leave this land as an outcast, a wanderer in exile from my land. This is how I shall live, and will leave behind these my prayers in death.

Chorus: Burden not your lips with evil speech. What you did was well done. You liberated Argos when you lopped the heads off these two snakes.

Orestes: No! the women who serve this house wear black. They are like gorgons. Their hairs hang like snakes. I must leave.

Chorus: You are the dearest to your father of all men. Hold on and do not give way to fear. The victory is yours.

Orestes: These afflictions are clear and real. Beware, they are the hounds of wrath that avenge a mother.

Chorus: The blood on your hands is still wet. This is the cause of the troubles which haunt your soul.

Orestes: Lord Apollo, see how they swarm. with blood dripping from their eyes.

Chorus: Let Apollo touch you and free you from this torment.

Orestes: You cannot see these forms, but they are here and drive me on. I can no longer remain here.

Orestes exits.

Chorus: Go with luck. May the gods watch over and guard you well. A third storm now bears down on this palace: First - the meal of the flesh of children resulting in a curse on the House of Atreus; Second - the murder of the king of Argos in his bath; Third - now a saviour or a work of doom? When, how and where will it all end?

Exeunt

References

Aeschylus: Choephoroi (Libation Bearers) (Χοηϕόροι)

Summary and Analysis The Choephori, or The Libation Bearers - Cliff’s Notes

The coephoras

Libation Bearers by Aeschylus - GreekMythology.com

Introduction: The Libation Bearers as Part of The Oresteia Trilogy Cummings Guides
Erinyes - Wikipedia
ERINYES - The Furies, Greek Goddesses of Vengeance & Retribution The Erinyes | Greek Mythology Wiki | Fandom The Curse of the House of Atreus: A Dysfunctional Family Taken to Extremes - Ancient Origins

Winnington-Ingram, R. P. “The Rôle of Apollo in the Oresteia.” The Classical Review, vol. 47, no. 3, 1933, pp. 97–104. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/699068.

Scribner, Henry S. “The Treatment of Orestes in Greek Tragedy.” The Classical Weekly, vol. 16, no. 14, 1923, pp. 105–109. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4388449.

Pontani, Filippomaria. “Shocks, Lies, and Matricide: Thoughts on Aeschylus ‘Choephori’ 653-718.” Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, vol. 103, 2007, pp. 203–233. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/30032223.

Stinton, T. C. W. “The First Stasimon of Aeschylus' Choephori.” The Classical Quarterly, vol. 29, no. 2, 1979, pp. 252–262. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/638092.

Lebeck, Anne. “The First Stasimon of Aeschylus' Choephori: Myth and Mirror Image.” Classical Philology, vol. 62, no. 3, 1967, pp. 182–185. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/268378.

Greek Versions

Aeschylus (1844). Rev. T. Williamson Peile (ed.). Aischylou Choēphoroi. J. Murray.

Tragedies [Choephoroi]. Re-edited with an English commentary by F.A. Paley : Aeschylus - Internet Archive

Aeschylus Choephoroi - Google Books