Ancient Greek Theatre: Prometheus Bound

Prometheus Bound or Prometheus Chained (Prometheus Vinctus Προμηθεὺς Δεσμώτης)

The story of this tragedy is about the struggle between the absolute and tyrannical power of Zeus and the spirit of freedom as displayed by Prometheus and his unsubdued will amidst the severest of sufferings. Prometheus has been condemned by the chief of the gods to atone for having stolen fire from heaven, by being nailed and chained, crucified in a kind of Christ-like manner, to a lonely rock in the Caucasus.

Argument

In the beginning, Ouranos and Gaia held sway over Heaven and Earth. And manifold children were born unto them, of whom were Cronos, and Okeanos, and the Titans, and the Giants. But Cronos cast down his father Ouranos, and ruled in his stead, until Zeus his son cast him down in his turn, and became King of gods and men. Then were the Titans divided, for some had good will unto Cronos, and others unto Zeus; until Prometheus, son of the Titan Iapetos, by wise counsel, gave the victory to Zeus. But Zeus held the race of mortal men in scorn, and was fain to destroy them from the face of the earth; yet Prometheus loved them, and gave secretly to them the gift of fire, and arts whereby they could prosper upon the earth. Then was Zeus sorely angered with Prometheus, and bound him upon a mountain, and afterward overwhelmed him in an earthquake, and devised other torments against him for many ages; yet could he not slay Prometheus, for he was a god.

Alternative Argument

When Cronus, the son of Uranus, was king in heaven, revolt against his rule arose among the gods. The Olympians strove to dethrone him in favour of Zeus, his son; the Titans, children of Uranus and Earth, championing the ancient order of violence, warred against Zeus and his partisans. Prometheus, himself a Titan, forewarned by his oracular mother Earth or Themis (for she bore either name) that the victory should be won by craft, whereas his brethren placed their sole reliance on brute force, rallied with her to the side of Zeus and secured his success. His triumph once assured, the new monarch of heaven proceeded forthwith to apportion to the gods their various functions and prerogatives; but the wretched race of man he purposed to annihilate and create another in its stead. This plan was frustrated by Prometheus, who, in compassion on their feebleness, showed them the use of fire, which he had stolen in their behoof, and taught them all arts and handicrafts. For this rebellion against the newly–founded sovereignty of Zeus, the friend of mankind was doomed to suffer chastisement—he must pass countless ages, riveted to a crag on the shores of Ocean in the trackless waste of Scythia.

But suffering of body or of mind might not quell his spirit, though he is possessed of the sad privilege of immortality. Conscious that he had erred, he is nevertheless fortified by indignation that he had been made the victim of tyranny and ingratitude. Nor is he unprovided with a means to strengthen his resistance and to force the hand of his oppressor, whose despotic Power has one point of attack. The Titan is possessed of a fateful secret which must be revealed to Zeus if he is not to be hurled from his dominion as his father had been before him. The despot contemplates marriage with Thetis, and should it be brought to pass, the son to be born to him is to prove mightier than his sire. This secret, told Prometheus by his mother, he will not disclose till, in the lapse of ages, Zeus consents to release him from his ignominious bonds; rather than part with it on other terms he defies the thunder and lightning of the lord of Olympus and, amid the crashing world, is hurled to Tartarus, to the last protesting against the injustice of his doom.

Hypothesis

Io, in her wanderings, hears from Prometheus, when enchained in Scythia for the theft of fire, that after her arrival in Egypt she will bring forth Epaphus from the congress of Jove [Zeus]. Mercury [Hermes] arriving threatens him with thunder unless he disclose the events which are about to happen to Jupiter [Zeus]; for Prometheus had foretold that he would be driven from his empire by one of his descendants. At last the thunder descends and Prometheus disappears.

Dramatis Personae

Kratos (divine personification of Strength or Might, agent and servant of Zeus)
Bia (divine personification and goddess of Force or Violence, agent and servant of Zeus) [mute part]
Hephaestus (an Olympian, god of fire and metalworking, blacksmith to the gods - aka Vulcan)
Prometheus (a Titan, but one who had sided with Zeus in the war against his kind).
Chorus of Oceanids (daughters of Oceanus and Tethys, personifications of the waters of the world)
Oceanus (god of the great sea that surrounds the world)
Io (lover of Zeus)
Hermes (messenger of the gods)

Possible Allocation of Parts:

Protagonist: Prometheus
Deuteragonist: Kratos (or Hephaestus), Oceanus, Io, Hermes
Tritagonist: Hephaestus (or Kratos)

Setting: A barren cliff or crag within sight of the sea on a mountain top in Scythia [Caucasus]. There is a large rock in the centre of the stage, with a ravine between two precipices rent from each other, in between which Prometheus is to be chained.

[Prometheus will be chained to this rock in the ravine on stage for the whole play.]

Summary

Prologue [Lines 1-127]

First Scene (1-87)

In a very far and remote region of the earth, Hephaestus, god of fire and metal-working, assisted by the personifications of Power (Kratos) and Force (Bia) [silent part], are dragging Prometheus to a mountain crag. There Kratos orders Hephaestus to nail him to the rock with fetters that cannot be undone: Prometheus has to learn by suffering indefinite exposure and the burning heat of the sun by day, to bear and obey the will of Zeus as his reward for favouring mankind. Only Zeus alone is free. The mind of Zeus is unrelenting. Every ruler new to power is harsh.

Kratos asks Hephaestus why he is hesitant in performing his task. Zeus' word cannot be disobeyed. Zeus' laws cannot be transgressed

Hephaestus agrees that it may be a heavy thing to transgress against Zeus's laws, and says that Prometheus, even though a son of Themis and therefore his kin, has overstepped the bounds of Dike ("the Law that has been spoken by a Law-Giver"). But he laments for Prometheus' ordeal.

Kratos says that he gives the orders around here and directs that an adamantine wedge is to be driven right through Prometheus' chest to bind him to the rock.

Kratos says to Prometheus: Now commit your outrages here and plunder the gods' prerogatives by handing them over to Mankind who have but an insubstantial and transient existence. The gods may call you Prometheus [Forethought] but that is a false name for you need foresight to find your way, to free yourself, out of this.

Kratos, Bia and Hephaestus exit. Prometheus is bound on stage for the remainder of the play.

Second Scene (88-127)

Prometheus alone on stage, our hero, with his arms and legs fettered and chest pierced, bewails the injustice of his fate. He declares that he in fact has foreseen his suffering but has chosen to suffer it out of friendship for man.

Prometheus declares, alone, that he has foreseen his suffering but has chosen to suffer it in friendship for Mankind. He mentions he has noticed the coming of the Chorus.

Parodos [Lines 128-282]

[That which now takes place is not a regular entrance or parodos of the Chorus]

The Chorus of Oceanids enter on "flying machines".
[It seems they are probably wheeled into the orchestra upon "winged" chariots.]

The Chorus assure Prometheus that in their hearts they are with him, and speak in severest of terms concerning the tyranny of Zeus. They then ask him why it is that Zeus has had him chained to a rock in such a remote region. They invite him to disclose everything.

In answer to their questions, Prometheus tells the Chorus the whole story of his crime against Zeus, that he has committed it deliberately. However, he complains that the punishment that has been served upon him has been disproportionate and is the capricious act of a tyrant.

Prometheus relates his story and about the war between the new Olympian gods and the old gods and Titans [known as the Titanomachy]. The new Olympian gods were led by Zeus and the old gods by Cronos, Zeus' father. The Olympians resolved to depose Cronos and make Zeus absolute king of the heavens, whilst the old gods resolved that Zeus should never rule. Prometheus goes on to says that he tried to convince the Titans they would lose. The Titans hated cunning and were proud of and trusted in their strength. The Titans foresaw an easy victory. Prometheus explains that it was his mother, Themis, who had personally foretold to him many times that it would be cunning which would give the rulers of the future victory, and that brute force and violence would not. Prometheus said that he tried many times to explain this to the Titans, but not one word of Prometheus' did they heed.

Prometheus said it was then that he decided to side with his Zeus, along with his mother; and that it was because of the guidance which he gave Zeus that Cronos and his host now lie buried in the black abyss of the Tartarus. And that this situation of his was now his "reward" for helping the king of the gods achieve his place in the heavens. A deep sense of ingratitude would seem to be an inherent feature of a tyrant's soul.

Now Prometheus continues by explaining the specific offence which he has committed and why Zeus has had him chained and tortured. When Zeus succeeded to his father's throne, he immediately appointed various rights to each of the gods, assigning to each his place and authority. Concerning the mortal and wretched race of humans Zeus gave them nothing, but instead resolved to have them utterly annihilated and to have them replaced with another race. Prometheus then said that it was he who saved the humans from death, and that it was this the principal reason why he suffers now; that it was because he took pity on them that he has been now been cruelly disciplined by Zeus.

The Chorus remark that only a heart of iron could ignore the compassion which had shown to the humans. They enquire further whether Prometheus has told the whole story. What else did he do? How else did he cure their misery

He gave mankind hopefulness. He made them forget they were mortal. He gave them fire: now, even though the life of a human is brief, they will come to master many crafts with the use of it. It was this specific offence for which Zeus has had him punished. Although he knew he had done wrong, he did not expect this punishment for it: chained to a rock and left to rot.

Prometheus hints at a secret which he knows of that will one day put Zeus into his power. The Chorus receive these as being the proud words of an injured soul rather than being prophetic. He begs them to stop their lamenting.

Finally, he invites the Chorus to step down to earth from their "flying machines". The Chorus obey and arrange themselves in formation in the orchestra before Prometheus. The "chariots" are led off.

First Episode [Lines 283-396]

Enter Oceanus [father of the Oceanids] arrives riding in a car drawn by a winged steed (a mythical beast a hippocampus or seahorse, or on a griffin). He has come to give Prometheus some advice. to help him. He tells him that he has to adapt to the new ways, for new is the ruler of all the gods [Zeus]. If he continues to scream and shout abuse Zeus may hear him and that his present sufferings might be seen only as child's play. Prometheus must learn humility or more miseries will be piled up upon him. Oceanus says he will try his best to have Prometheus released, but he must learn that a tyrant, accountable to no one, is in command. Oceanus urges Prometheus to learn to be milder and more yielding. Prometheus thanks Oceanus for his goodwill. But asks him to do nothing and warns him to stay clear of danger.

Prometheus makes mention of his fellow kinsman, the Titan Atlas, and the sad fate that has befallen him. Atlas has been condemned for all eternity by Zeus to have to hold up the sky on his shoulders as the pillar between. Atlas has been forced to do this after the Titans lost their war with the Olympian gods. Prometheus compares his fate with Atlas'.

He points to the fate of his brother Titans: Atlas, who in the far west has been condemned for all eternity by Zeus to have to hold up the sky on his shoulders as the pillar between heaven and earth. He has been forced to do this after the Titans lost their war with the Olympian gods. Prometheus compares his fate with Atlas'. And Typhon, the hundred headed giant, native of the caves of Cilicia, who threatened to annihilate the throne of Zeus, but was struck down by one of Zeus' thunderbolts which left him but a conder, and who has now been crushed by the god under Mount Etna, whilst on top of that mountain Hephaestus hammers red-hot iron from which rivers of flame will burst forth to devour the fields of fertile Sicily. Prometheus advises Oceanus to save himself till relaxes his angry mood.

Oceanus: Have you not learned, Prometheus, that anger is a disease which words can heal?

But Prometheus is not keen to accept any of Oceanus' help or advice, and tells him to leave and go back home.

Exit Oceanus.

First Stasimon [Lines 397-435]

The Chorus lament for Prometheus. Zeus has behaved like a tyrant, one who rules by laws of his own devising. Mortals everywhere weep for the fate of Prometheus and the other Titans. But only one other Titan is suffering alone as Prometheus is: namely Atlas, with whom all the waters of the world weep in sympathy.

Second Episode [Lines 436-525]

Prometheus now speaks, not to continue the promised account of his future sufferings, but begs pardon for his silence, caused by pondering on the ingratitude of gods. On that he will not dwell, but tells his listeners at full length of all the good things of which he has been the author for men. To a well-meant, but ill-grounded, remark of the Chorus, that surely one who has so mightily helped others will one day hold his head higher than Zeus, he answers mysteriously - he will indeed one day be freed, but it will be by the intervention of Necessity, which it is Fate, and not Zeus, who directs. Pressed to say how this is to be, or how anything can be in store for Zeus save to reign for ever, he declines : this is his secret, and the present is not the time for it to be revealed.

In this episode Prometheus lists all the benefits (which Zeus terms "their miseries") he claims that he has given or taught to mortal mankind in addition to the gift of fire:

Prometheus made them intelligent. Before him they were rather "silly". It was he who gave them their wits to use.

Before him they had sight but could not see; they had ears but did not listen: they found everything randomly confusing for the whole of their lives. They knew not how to erect brick-built houses able to catch the sun, nor carpentry. Instead they dug out underground homes scurrying around like ants, in dark sunless tunnelled caves. They could not predict winter's coming, and had no sure mark for the arrival of spring or summer, but did everything without design, without intelligence until he had shown and taught them the reckoning of the seasons by the rising and settings of the stars. Number, too, he invented for them, supreme amongst the skills, and how to combine letters as the record of all things and which hold everything in memory, the creative mother of the art of the Muses.

Prometheus goes on to say that he was the first to yoke beasts, as a substitute for the labour of Man it his hardest work; the first to harness horses to draw carriages, their saddles, and how to make them subject to control by reins; and chariots too, that ornament of extreme wealth and luxury. That he himself, had invented ships with which their sailors roam the seas using sails.

But he goes on to say that although he has been able to do all these clever things for the benefit of Mankind, he has not been able to devise any means to help himself in his present situation.

The Chorus remark that he has suffered a shameful outrage, that his wits have been taken from him, like some bad doctor who has lost his spirit and fallen ill. "Can he not discover a medicine to cure himself?"

Prometheus tells the Chorus to listen further, that they will be amazed at what other skills and means he has devised. The greatest of all crafts which he has taught Mankind was Medicine. Before, if any person fell ill, there was nothing to defend them with, neither healing food which to swallow or ointment which to rub in. He showed Mankind how to mix remedies which could drive away sickness, for lack of medicine they would have wasted away. And he set out many ways of performing divination by which they might read the future. He was the first to judge from dreams what must be reality, those which would come true. And to ascertain explanations for the difficult omens from what people remarked and the signs from chance encounters with those who they met on their journeys.

He could divine the flight of birds of prey both those which are auspicious or sinister in nature, the habits of life they each have, their feuds and loves, and their perching together; the smoothness of their entrails: what colour of the gall bladder from whose interpretation the gods would find pleasing and the symmetry of the speckling found on the liver-lobe; he had men cremate their thigh bones and the spine wrapped in fat. Thereby he initiated Mankind into an occult art and cleared his vision to enable him to discern signs from the flames, all of which had previously been obscure.

Prometheus: And all the valuable minerals hidden in the earth: bronze, iron, silver, gold who will say that mankind discovered them before Prometheus? If Mankind practices any kind of craft or art, know and understand that he has learnt all his skills from Prometheus.

The Chorus warn Prometheus not to help mortals neglecting his own torments. They have hopes he may yet be freed and come to rival Zeus in power.

Prometheus says that it is not ordained that events will come to such an end; that it is his lot only to win freedom after suffering countless pains. Craftiness is far weaker than necessity.

Chorus: Who is steering necessity?

Prometheus: The trinities of the Fates [or Morai: the three goddesses who determine human destinies, such as the span of life] and the Furies [or Erinyes: the three goddesses of vengeance and retribution who punish mankind for crimes against the natural order], who forget nothing.

Chorus: Does Zeus have less power than they?

Prometheus: He cannot flee Fate

Chorus: Is not his fate but everlasting power?

Prometheus: You may not know the answer to this yet.

Chorus: Is this some holy truth that you have concealed in mystery?

Prometheus: This is a secret which must remain hidden. For only by keeping it can I escape these bonds and agonies.

Second Stasimon [Lines 526-560]

The Chorus hope they will always honour the gods and have no wish to come into direct conflict with Zeus. They lament their sorrow for Prometheus for the fate he is suffering for not having shown his fear of Zeus. He has honoured mortals too greatly. Humans are weak and helpless: they can never act beyond the will of Zeus. They cannot come to Prometheus' aid. This is the sad lesson to be learned from the example that Zeus is making of Prometheus. The Chorus lament that Prometheus' situation is so different from the happy times when they sang at his marriage to their sister, Hesione.

Third Episode [Lines 561-886]

Enter Io, "the girl with horns,", dancing in a state of frenzy. [perhaps followed by a non-speaking actor playing the part of the horse-fly pestering her.]

Io: What land is this? What race of man lives here? Who is that tortured bound to a rock? What sin is he being punished for? Ow! Ow! Ow! There it is again, biting me, that horse-fly, the ghost of Argos. Keep it away from me, Argos that herdsman with ten thousand eyes who stalks me wherever I go even though he is dead.

The horse-fly has been sent by the goddess Hera to follow Io and to madden and pester her. Hera was jealous when Zeus had lusted after Io. Zeus transformed her into a cow and gave her to Hera, who set the many-eyed Argos to keep watch on her. Argos died revealing Hermes to be his killer. Io still feels that the eyes of the dead Argos are watching her. Io asks Zeus why he is tormenting her in this manner and says she'd rather die in some other way: "Burn me with fire, or bury me in earth, or give me for food to the monsters of the deep, and grudge me not these prayers, O king!"

Prometheus recognises Io and addresses her by name: he knows of her wanderings. Io asks Prometheus to tell her who he is and explain why he is being punished.

Prometheus tells Io who he is [the one who gave fire to mortals] and explains who has punished him [decreed by Zeus, and nailed to the rock by Hephaestus].

She asks him to tell her, since he has the skill of foresight, does he know of the rest of her wanderings and sufferings and when will it end.

The Chorus interrupt, asking Io first to tell them how her wanderings began.

Io relates how nightly in visions whilst she slept she kept hearing a voice telling her to give up her maidenhood to Zeus. She told her father, Inachus, of these dreams. He consulted the oracles. These advised him to throw her out of his home or face the wrath of Zeus. Inachus did as he was told. Instantly she was transformed into a cow. And a horse-fly and the many-eyed Argos were set to follow her. Soon afterwards Argos was killed. She has been wandering ever since.

The Chorus shudder at hearing Io's tale.

Prometheus then tells Io what she can expect to happen to her and what she must do. She is to travel to the East through the lands of uncivilized peoples, coming to the Caucasus, and thence to the land of the Amazons. She will then cross over the channel that connects the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara hereafter which will be called the Bosporus [cattle passage] after her, arriving in Asia.

Prometheus tells Io of a secret. Zeus will cause his own downfall by making a foolish marriage. A son will be born who will overthrow him: this fate cannot be avoided unless he, Prometheus, is freed from this bondage. He goes on to tell Io that a child of hers has been named as his deliverer [the third of her lineage in addition to ten other generations].

Prometheus continues to foretell Io what is going to happen to her. She will proceed in Asia further east to the land of the Gorgons, passing by the land of a dark-skinned race near the Ethiopian River until she arrives at the Nile Delta where she and her descendants will found a new settlement.

"... having passed over the roaring swell of the sea, until thou shalt reach the Gorgonian plains of Cisthene, where dwell the Phorcides, three swan-like aged damsels, that possess one eye in common, that have but a single tooth, on whom ne'er doth the sun glance with his rays, nor the nightly moon. And hard by are three winged sisters of these, the snake-tressed Gorgons, abhorred of mortals, whom none of human race can look upon and retain the breath of life. Such is this caution which I mention to thee. Now lend an ear to another hideous spectacle ; for be on thy guard against the keen-fanged hounds of Zeus that never bark, the gryphons, and the cavalry host of one-eyed Arimaspians [one-eyed people of northern Scythia], who dwell on the banks of the gold-gushing fount, the stream of Hades: go not thou nigh to these. And thou wilt reach a far-distant land, a dark tribe, who dwell close upon the fountains of the sun, where is the river Ethiops. Along the banks of this wend thy way, until thou shalt have reached the cataract where from the Bybline mountains the Nile pours forth his hallowed, grateful stream. This will guide thee to the Delta of the Nile ; where at length, lo, it is ordained for thee and thy children after thee to found the distant colony. And if aught of this is obscurely uttered, and hard to be understood, question me anew, and learn it thoroughly and clearly : as for leisure, I have more than I desire."

Chorus:. If indeed thou hast aught to tell of her baleful wanderings, that still remains or hath been omitted, say on ; but if thou hast told the whole, give to us in our turn the favour which we ask, and you, perchance, remember.

Prometheus: She hath heard the full term of her journeying. And that she may know that she hath not been listening to me in vain, I will relate what hardships she endured before she came hither, giving her this as a sure proof of my statements.

Prometheus then proves the truth of his predictions describing what has happened to Io before she came here. She had visited the prophetic oak trees of Dodona, where it was foretold she would be declared the future wife of Zeus, and then, would be driven by a horsefly, fleeing to the sea, which will. This sea would be named Ionian, after her.

Prometheus: This is proof positive of my prophetic mind, how it perceives somewhat beyond that which appears.

Prometheus then continues to describe her future. He relates the story of the Suppliant Maidens: Zeus will restore her to her wits and will touch her, impregnating her with a son who will be called Epaphos. Five generations later a family of 50 sisters will return to Argos, fleeing incestuous marriages with their cousins. The young men will pursue and claim their brides, but at night the women will kill their husbands—all except one girl who will spare her husband's life, and she shall live in Argos and give birth to kings. From her children's children, a hero will come and free Prometheus from his bonds.

Prometheus: "There is on the land's utmost verge a city Canopus, hard by the Nile's very mouth and alluvial dike ; on this spot Jupiter at length makes thee sane by merely soothing and touching thee with his unalarming hand. And named after the progeniture of Zeus thou shalt give birth to swarthy Epaphos, who shall reap the harvest of all the land which the wide-streaming Nile waters. But fifth in descent from him a generation of fifty virgins shall again come to Argos, not of their own accord, fleeing from incestuous wedlock with their cousins ; and these with fluttering hearts, like falcons left not far behind by doves, shall come pursuing marriage such as should not be pursued, but heaven shall be jealous over their persons ; and Pelasgos shall receive them after being crushed by a deed of night-fenced daring, wrought by woman's hand ; for each bride shall bereave her respective husband of life, having dyed in their throats a sword of twin sharp edge. Would that in guise like this Venus might visit my foes ! But tenderness shall soften one of the maidens, so that she shall not slay the partner of her couch, but shall be blunt in her resolve ; and of the two alternatives she shall choose the former, to be called a coward rather than a murderess. She in Argos shall give birth to a race of kings. There needs a long discourse to detail these things distinctly ; but from this seed be sure shall spring a dauntless warrior renowned in archery, who shall set me free from these toils. Such predictions did my aged mother Themis rehearse to me ; but how and when to tell this requires a long detail, and thou in knowing it all wouldst be in nought a gainer."

At this juncture Io is bitten again by the horse-fly, screams out, tormented with pain and by madness. She leaves on her wanderings.

Exit Io

Third Stasimon [Lines 887-906]

The Chorus lament for Io's sorrows and pray that they may forever be spared the ills of an unequal marriage; that it is best for a person not to marry above their station in life, and best not to long to wed someone who is richer or nobler than themselves. They wish that they may never be brought to wed one of the gods, having seen the sorrows of Io, and hope never to be seen or desired by any of the gods.

Fourth Episode and Exodos [Lines 907-1093]

First Scene (907-943)

Prometheus: Zeus will be humble despite his stubborn thinking, such is the marriage he is preparing, which will cast him into oblivion; then the curse of his father, Cronus, will be totally fulfilled and he will be deposed from his ancient throne. I know and can foresee all this. No other god besides myself can clearly disclose a way of escape for him from this inevitable fate. Nothing of his thunder and lightning will avail him: a rival is making ready against him, a rival who will invent a flame more powerful than lightning and a mightier clap louder than thunder, a force more powerful than Poseidon's trident. And when he is dashed on Poseidon's evil reef, he will be taught the difference between sovereignty and slavery.

The Chorus question Prometheus about his prophesy. How can he dare to make such a prediction without fear? Ought he not to be afraid. Zeus could contrive a punishment more dreadful than the one he is presently suffering.

Prometheus dares Zeus to use his power. He tells the Chorus to do homage to Zeus and deliver up their prayers to him.

Second Scene (944-1039)

Enter Hermes
[Hermes is the tyrant's [Zeus'] servant and messenger]

Hermes says that if Prometheus, thief of fire, is so clever, Zeus demands to know in full detail which marriage will cause him to be cast from his throne. Zeus does not cower before threats like these.

Prometheus tells Hermes he is being arrogant, the behaviour one might expect from the lackey of a tyrant. Can he not see that they are all new to power in the citadel of heaven? Prometheus goes on to tell Hermes that he has already seen two previous rulers of heaven deposed. Why not another? That he shall see him soon overthrown most shamefully and most quickly. That he himself is not afraid and will not cower before the new gods. He tells Hermes to run along back home along the road which he came on. Hermes will not hear one tittle of what Prometheus has foreseen.

Hermes tell Prometheus it was due to this kind of obstinacy that he has found himself chained to the rock.

Prometheus tells Hermes let Zeus lose his temper and hurl thunderbolts and lightning at him, none of this will induce him to reveal anything. That Hermes is bothering him uselessly.

Hermes warns Prometheus that when Zeus hears from him about Prometheus' obduracy Zeus will send forth such a tempest, such a cataclysm that will rend the ravine apart burying him beneath the rocks for a very long duration of time, after which he will be raised up back into the light again. Zeus will then send his winged-hound, a blood-thirsty eagle which shall ravenously tear at his huge lacerated frame, stealing upon him like an unbidden guest, and tarrying till the end of time banqueting his fill on his liver, blackened by its gnawing. Hermes tells Prometheus not to expect any end to this ordeal, until some god appears to take down into Hades, into the gloomy depths of Tartarus.

Hermes: Deliberate on your options for what I have said is no fabrication, spoken all too truly by Zeus' himself who has not lied on this matter. Ponder your obduracy.

Chorus: To us, Hermes seems to speak wisely. He advises you to abandon your stubbornness and search for good counsel. Listen. It is shameful for one who is wise to go badly wrong.

The Cataclysm (1040-1093)

All three voices chant [ Prometheus, the Chorus and Hermes] It is not known how or what special effects the Ancient Greeks used during this final scene.

Prometheus replies there is nothing shameful in suffering at the hand of an enemy and calls upon the earth to quake and for him to be hurled down into Tartarus amidst the tumult and bolts of lightning.

Hermes says that Prometheus is mad and tells the Chorus to leave before they find themselves caught up in the way of the coming thunder.

The Oceanids turn on him, saying that they will stand by Prometheus because betraying a friend is the lowest act of all.

Hermes says they have only themselves to blame and not blame Zeus for their troubles.

Exit Hermes

Prometheus then describes the storm that follows:

[The Cataclysm begins]

The earth shakes; there is thunder and lightning; winds blow; and sky and sea rage. Zeus is the cause of all of this disaster. Prometheus cries out to Heaven and Earth to witness what is happening to him.

Look how he suffers.

The Chorus gather round Prometheus.

The play ends.

References

Prometheus Bound - Wikipedia

Prometheus - GreekMythology.com

Themis - Wikipedia
Gaia - Wikipedia
Uranus (mythology) - Wikipedia
Gaia - Wikipedia
Titans - Wikipedia
Oceanus - Wikipedia
Hippocampus (mythology) - Wikipedia
Cronus - Wikipedia
Iapetus - Wikipedia

Atlas (mythology) - Wikipedia

Prometheus - Wikipedia
Hephaestus - Wikipedia

Kratos (mythology) - Wikipedia
Bia (mythology) - Wikipedia
Facts and Information on the Goddess Bia - Greek Gods & Goddesses,

Oceanids - Wikipedia
Hesione (Oceanid) - Wikipedia

Hermes - Wikipedia

Io - Wikipedia

Io_(mythology) - Wikipedia

Io - Greek Mythology

Inachus - Wikipedia

INACHUS (Inakhos) - Argive River-God of Greek Mythology

Inahcus in Greek Mythology - Greek Legends and Myths

Inachus | Facts, Information, and Mythology

Argus Panoptes - Greek Mythology

Hesiod, the Homeric Hymns and Homerica/The Theogony - Wikisource

Titanomachy - Wikipedia

Titanomachy - Greek Mythology

Titanomachy: https://greekgodsandgoddesses.net - Greek Gods & Goddesses

Prometheus: https://greekgodsandgoddesses.net - Greek Gods & Goddesses

Tartarus - Wikipedia

Crowell's handbook of classical drama by R.Y. Hathorn: p. 287- Prometheus Bound - Internet Archive

Prometheus Bound Study Guide - Course Hero

Prometheus Bound: Study Guide - SparkNotes

Prometheus Bound - Cummings Study Guide

https://www.litcharts.com/lit/prometheus-bound

Aeschylus: *Prometheus Bound (Προμηθεὺς Δεσμώτης) - Wiley Online Library

Prometheus Bound by Aeschylus GreekMythology.com

Dikē - Encyclopedia.com

Ian Ruffell (10 May 2012). Aeschylus: Prometheus Bound. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-7156-3476-9.

D. J. Conacher; D. H. Conacher (1980). Aeschylus' Prometheus Bound: A Literary Commentary. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-2391-9.

Imagery and theme in Aeschylus' Prometheus bound : Pandiri, Thalia Alexandra - Internet Archive

The author of the Prometheus Bound : Herington, C. J - Internet Archive

Aeschylus : Spatz, Lois : Chapter 6: Prometheus Bound - Internet Archive

Finkelberg, Margalit. “THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE ‘PROMETHEUS VINCTUS.’” Rheinisches Museum Für Philologie, vol. 141, no. 2, 1998, pp. 119–141. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41234311.

Allen, Frederic D. “Prometheus and the Caucasus.” The American Journal of Philology, vol. 13, no. 1, 1892, pp. 51–61. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/288028.

Stephen White. “Io's World: Intimations of Theodicy in Prometheus Bound.” The Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. 121, 2001, pp. 107–140. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/631831.

Thomson, George. “Notes on Prometheus Vinctus.” The Classical Quarterly, vol. 23, no. 3/4, 1929, pp. 155–163. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/637326.

Mullens, H. G. “Date and Stage Arrangements of the 'Prometheia'.” Greece & Rome, vol. 8, no. 24, 1939, pp. 160–171. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/641261.

Long, Herbert S. “Notes on Aeschylus' ‘Prometheus Bound.’” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 102, no. 3, 1958, pp. 229–280. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/985576.

Herington, C. J. “Introduction to Prometheus Bound.” Arion: A Journal of Humanities and the Classics, vol. 1, no. 4, 1973, pp. 640–667. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/20163350.

Davidson, John. “'Prometheus Vinctus' on the Athenian Stage.” Greece & Rome, vol. 41, no. 1, 1994, pp. 33–40. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/643130.

Mark Griffith (26 July 2007). The Authenticity of Prometheus Bound. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-03814-0.

Hugh Lloyd-Jones (1983). Justice of Zeus. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04688-7.

D. J. Conacher; D. H. Conacher (1980). Aeschylus' Prometheus Bound: A Literary Commentary. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-2391-9.

C. J. Herington (30 January 2015). The Author of the Prometheus Bound. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-4773-0420-4.

Prometheus bound
D Grene - Classical Philology 1940 35:1, 22-38 - journals.uchicago.edu

Herington, C. J. “Introduction to Prometheus Bound.” Arion: A Journal of Humanities and the Classics, vol. 1, no. 4, 1973, pp. 640–667. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/20163350.

Prometheus Bound: An Approach for the Modern Stage Didaskalia - The Journal for Ancient Performance

Greek Versions

Aeschylus : Prometheus Bound : Podlecki, Anthony J - Internet Archive pub. by Aris & Phillips

Æschyli Prometheus vinctus. The Prometheus bound, from the text of Dindorf'... - Google Books.

Aeschylus : Prometheus bound : Podlecki, Anthony J - Internet Archive Aris & Phillips Classical Texts

ΠPΟΜΗΘΕΥΣ ΔΕΣΜΩΤΗΣ. (2010). In G. Hermann (Ed.), Aeschyli Tragoediae (Cambridge Library Collection - Classics, pp. 43-84). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511711039.003

Aischulou Promētheus desmōtēs. The Prometheus vinctus, from the text of Din... - Google Books

Aeschylus (1850). Aischylou Tragōidiai. Prometheus Wiilhelm Dindorf (ed.) Sumptibus et typis B.G. Teubneri

Aeschylus (1972), ed. D.L. Page. Aeschyli septem quae supersunt tragoedias. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814570-7.
Προμηθεὺς Δεσμώτης - Aeschylus - Oxford Scholarly Editions

Æschyli Prometheus vinctus : Aeschylus - Internet Archive

Prometheus : Aeschylus, Theodore Dwight Woolsey - Internet Archive

Προμηθεύς Δεσμώτης by Aeschylus Project Gutenberg

Prometheus bound; with introduction and notes : Aeschylus

The Prometheus bound of Aeschylus and the fragments of the Prometheus unbound - Internet Archive

Prometheus bound; with introduction and notes : Aeschylus - Internet Archive Prickard

Mark Griffith, ed. (19 May 1983). Aeschylus: Prometheus Bound. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-27011-3.

Aeschylus: Prometheus Bound : Podlecki, Anthony J: Internet Archive http://bit.ly/3pTDpIy

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